The Military History Thread

[Ennath]

November 24, 1221
Battle of the Indus

After the defeat of the Kara-Khitans, Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire gained a border with the Khwarezmian Empire of Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. Mongol historians are adamant that the Great Khan at that time had no intention of invading the Empire, and was only interested in trade and even a potential alliance.

The shah was very suspicious of Genghis' desire for a trade agreement, and messages from the shah's ambassador in China described the exaggerated savagery of the Mongols during their war with the Jin Dynasty. Genghis sent a 500-man caravan of Muslims to establish official trade ties with Khwarezmia. However, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, had the members of the caravan arrested, claiming that it was a conspiracy. Genghis Khan then sent a second group of three ambassadors (one Muslim and two Mongols) to meet the shah himself and demand the caravan at Otrar be set free and the governor be handed over for punishment. The shah had both of the Mongols shaved and had the Muslim beheaded before sending them back. Muhammad also ordered the personnel of the caravan to be executed. This was a grave affront to the Khan himself, who considered ambassadors “sacred and inviolable.” The result was war. The Mongols crossed the Tien Shan mountains into the Shah's empire in 1219.

Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, adding supporting units to his dreaded cavalry. While still relying on the traditional advantages of his mobile cavalry, Genghis incorporated many aspects of warfare from China, particularly in siege warfare and a formidable intelligence network. The Mongols never invaded an opponent whose military and economic ability had not been thoroughly and completely scouted. The size of Genghis' army is often in dispute, ranging from a small army of 90,000 to a large estimate of 250,000, and Genghis brought along his most able generals to aid him. Genghis also brought a large body of foreigners, primarily Chinese. These foreigners were siege experts, bridge-building experts, doctors and a variety of specialty soldiers.

The Shah's army, roughly 400,000, was split among various major cities. The Shah was fearful that his army, if placed in one large unit under a single command, might be turned against him. Further, the Shah's reports from China indicated that the Mongols were not experts in siege warfare, and experienced problems when attempting to take fortified positions. The Shah's decisions on deployment would prove disastrous as the campaign unfolded.

Though tired from their journey, the Mongols still won their first victories. A Mongol army, under Jochi attacked the Shah's army in southern Khwarezmia and prevented the much larger forces of the Shah from forcing them into the mountains. The primary Mongol army, headed personally by Genghis Khan, reached Otrar in the fall of 1219. After besieging it for five months, the Khan's forces managed to storm the main part of the city by entering a sally port gate that was not secured. A further month went by before the citadel was taken. The governor held out until the end, even climbing to the top of the citadel in the last moments of the siege to throw down tiles at the oncoming Mongols. Genghis killed many of the inhabitants, enslaved the rest, and executed the governor.

Genghis and Tolui, at the head of an army of roughly 50,000 men, skirted Samarkand and went westwards to lay siege to Bukhara, arriving by an unexpected route virtually unnoticed. Bukhara was not heavily fortified. The garrison, about 20,000, attempted to break out on the third day of the siege, but was annihilated in open battle. The city leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though defenders held the citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery.

After the fall of Bukhara, Genghis headed to the Khwarezmian capital of Samarkand and arrived in March 1220. Samarkand possessed significantly better fortifications and as many as 100,000 men defending. The Mongols attacked using prisoners as shields. On the third day of fighting, the garrison launched a counterattack. Feigning retreat, Genghis drew a orce of 50,000 outside the fortifications and slaughtered them in open combat. Shah Muhammad attempted to relieve the city twice, but was driven back. On the fifth day, all but 2000 soldiers surrendered. The remaining die-hards held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier that had taken arms against him. The people were ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where they were killed and pyramids of severed heads raised as the symbol of Mongol victory.

About the time of the fall of Samarkand, Genghis Khan charged Subutai and Jebe with hunting down the Shah, who had fled west with some of his most loyal soldiers and his son, Jalal al-Din, to a small island in the Caspian Sea. It was there, in December of 1220, that the Shah died. Most scholars attribute his death to pneumonia.

Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of Urgench was still in the Khwarezmian hands. Jochi, who had been on campaign in the north since the invasion, approached the city from that direction, while Genghis, Ögedei, and Chaghatai attacked from the south. The assault on Urgench proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion. The city was built in a marshy delta area. The soft ground did not lend itself to siege warfare, and there was a lack of large stones for the catapults. The Mongols attacked regardless, and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block. Mongol casualties were higher than normal. As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred.

As the Mongols battered their way into Urgench, Genghis dispatched his youngest son Tolui into the western province of Khorasan. Tolui's army consisted of somewhere around 50,000 men, which was composed of a core of Mongols, supplemented by a large body of foreign soldiers, such as Turks and previously conquered peoples in China. Among the first cities to fall was Balkh, but major city was Merv. The garrison was only about 12,000 men, and the city was inundated with refugees. For six days, Tolui besieged the city, and on the seventh day, he assaulted the city. However, the garrison beat back the assault and launched their own counter-attack. This was similarly forced back into the city. The next day, the city's governor surrendered on Tolui's promise that the lives of the citizens would be spared. As soon as the city was handed over, however, Tolui slaughtered almost every person who surrendered, in a massacre possibly on a greater scale than that at Urgench. After finishing off Merv, Tolui headed westwards, taking Nishapur and Herat, massacring everyone. Bamian was another scene of carnage in 1221, here stiff resistance resulted in the death of a grandson of Ghengis. By spring 1221, the province of Khurasan was under complete Mongol rule. Leaving garrison forces behind him, Tolui headed back east to rejoin his father.

After the Mongol campaign in Khurasan, the Shah's army was broken. Jalal al-Din, who took power after his father's death, began assembling the remnants of the Khwarezmian army in the south, in the area of Afghanistan. Genghis dispatched forces to hunt down the gathering army, and the two sides met in the spring of 1221 at the town of Parwan. The engagement was a humiliating defeat for the Mongol forces. Enraged, Genghis headed south himself. Jalal ad-Din headed for India to seek refuge together with his army of some 50,000 and several thousand refugees. However, Genghis caught up with him with 30,000 men when he was about to cross the river Indus.

Jalal al-Din positioned his army in a defensive stance, placing one flank against the mountains while his other flank was covered by a river bend. The initial Mongol charge was beaten back. Jalal al-Din counterattacked, nearly breaching the center of the Mongol army, while Genghis sent a contingent of 10,000 around the mountain and flanked Jalal al-Din's army. With his army attacked from two directions and collapsing into chaos, Jalal al-Din fled across the Indus. Genghis spent some time on the southern shore of the Indus searching for the new Shah, but failed to find him. The Khan returned northwards, content to leave the Shah in India.

Genghis returned to Mongolia, leaving garrison troops behind. The destruction and absorption of the Khwarezmian Empire would prove to be a sign of things to come for the Islamic world, as well as Eastern Europe. The new territory proved to be an important stepping stone for Mongol armies under the reign of Genghis' son Ögedei to invade Europe and the Middle East.

[Ennath]

November 25, 885
Viking Siege of Paris

Although the Vikings had attacked parts of Francia previously, they reached Paris for the first time in 845, sacking the city. They attacked Paris three times in the 860s, leaving only when they had acquired sufficient loot or bribes. In 864, bridges were ordered built across the Seine at Pitres and in Paris, where two were built, one on each side of the Ile de la Cité, which was the entirety of the city at the time. These would serve admirably in the siege of 885. The chief ruler in the region around Paris was the duke of Francia (who was also count of Paris), who controlled the lands between the Seine and Loire. Originally this was Robert the Strong, Margrave of Neustria. He began fortifying the capital and fought the Norsemen continuously until his death in battle against them at Brissarthe (July 2, 866). Although his son Odo succeeded him, royal power declined. However, Paris continued to be fortified due to local initiative.

Meanwhile, West Francia suffered under a series of short-reigning kings after the death of Charles the Bald in 877. This situation prevailed until 884, when Charles the Fat, already King of Germany and Italy, became king, and hopes were raised of a reunification of Charlemagne's empire. The Franks had gained an upper hand against the Vikings in the victory of Louis III at Saucourt in 881, but in 885, the Vikings launched their most massive attack on Paris yet.

Danish Vikings under Sigfred and Sinric sailed towards West Francia, having raided the northeastern parts of the country before. Sigfred demanded a bribe from Charles, but was refused, and promptly led 700 ships up the Seine, carrying perhaps as many as 30,000 men. The number, the largest ever recorded for a Viking fleet in contemporary sources, originates from Abbo Cenuus. Although an eyewitness, there is general agreement among historians that Abbo's numbers are exaggerated. Modern historians suggest 300 ships, but this is still a large and powerful force for the time. Although the Franks tried to block the Vikings from sailing up the Seine, they eventually managed to reach Paris. Its strategic importance came from the ability to block ships' passage with its two low-lying bridges, one of wood and one of stone. Not even the shallow Viking ships could pass Paris because of the bridges. Odo, Count of Paris prepared for the arrival of the Vikings by fortifying the bridgehead with two towers guarding each bridge. He was low on men, but led a joint defence with Gozlin, Bishop of Paris and had the aid of his brother, Robert, two counts and a marquis.

The Vikings arrived on November25, 885, initially asking for tribute. When this was denied, they began a siege. On the 26th, they attacked the northeast tower with siege engines. They were repulsed by a mixture of hot wax and pitch. All Viking attacks that day were repulsed, and during the night the Parisians constructed another story on the tower. On November 27, the Viking attack included battering rams and fire, but to no avail. The Vikings withdrew after the failed initial attacks and built a camp on the right side of the river bank. While preparing for new attacks, the Vikings also started constructing additional siege engines. In a renewed assault, they shot a thousand projectiles against the city, sent a ship for the bridge, and made a land attack with three groups. The forces surrounded the bridgehead tower, possibly aiming to bring down the river obstacle. While they tried setting fire to the bridge, they also attacked the city itself with siege engines.

For two months the Vikings maintained the siege, provisioning themselves off the land. In January 886 they tried to fill the river shallows with debris, plant matter, and the bodies of dead animals and dead prisoners to try to get around the tower. They continued this for two days. On the third day they set three ships alight and guided them towards the wooden bridge. The burning ships sank before they could set the bridge on fire, but the wooden construction was nonetheless weakened. On February 6, rain caused the river (still filled with debris) to overflow and the bridge supports gave way. The bridge gone, the northeast tower was now isolated with only twelve defenders inside. The Vikings asked the twelve to surrender, but they refused, and were all subsequently killed.

The Vikings left a force around Paris, but many ventured further to pillage Le Mans, Chartres, Evreux and into the Loire. Odo successfully slipped some men through Norse lines to go to Italy and plead with Charles to come to their aid. Henry, Count of Saxony, Charles' chief man in Germany, marched toward Paris. Weakened by marching during the winter, Henry's soldiers made only one abortive attack in February before retreating. The morale of the besiegers was low and Sigfred asked for sixty pounds of silver. He left the siege in April. Another Viking leader, Rollo, stayed behind with his men. In May, disease began to spread in the Parisian ranks and Gozlin died. Odo then slipped through Viking-controlled territory to petition Charles for support; Charles consented. Odo fought his way back into Paris and Charles and Henry of Saxony marched north. Henry died after he fell into the Viking ditches, where he was captured and killed.


That summer, the Danes made a final attempt to take the city, but were repulsed. The imperial army arrived in October and scattered the Vikings. Charles encircled Rollo and his army and set up a camp at Montmartre. However, Charles had no intention of fighting. He allowed the Vikings to sail down the Seine to ravage Burgundy, which was in revolt. When the Vikings withdrew from France the next spring, he gave them 700 livres (pounds) of silver as promised.

The people of Paris, not unnaturally, felt betrayed. Odo swore not to pay the ransom and to continue the battle. He refused to let the Vikings past his island, so they instead dragged their boats overland to the Marne River, from which they sailed off toward Burgundy. What seemed good politics to Charles seemed cowardice to his people. When Charles died in 888, the French elected Odo as their king. Odo's brother was later elected king as well. Throughout the next century the Robertians, descendants of Robert the Strong, fought the Carolingians for the French throne. Their duchy (Francia) gave its name to the Kingdom of France and the Carolingian Empire was never again reconstituted.

[9876543210]

After shoveling a bit of snow last night I came in and browsed through a few channels. Came to one of the PBS channels and they had a fascinating story about how a single Soviet can, apparently, be credited as saving the entire modern world. The show is a PBS series called "Secrets of the Dead" and the episode is entitled, "The Man Who Saved the World". Here's the story in a nutshell.

Many of us will remember events going on back in October of 1962. The US and the Soviet Union were at loggerheads over nuclear missles being placed in Cuba. Most of us will be familiar with that story. What you may not know is that there were four diesel electric submarines sent to the area to start a Soviet base in Cuba. And on each of these subs was placed a torpedo (or special weapon) with a nuclear tip. The Americans found three of the four subs but hesitated at confronting them as they were just outside of the exclusion zone around Cuba. So the Americans decided to try and force one of the Soviet subs up to the surface. This is the story of Soviet submarine B-59 and what happened when the Americans did that. This is also the story of a Soviet submarine commander, Vasili Arkhipov, whom, under tremendous pressure made the decision not to fire one of those nuclear tipped torpedoes.

First, remember please this was a diesel electric submarine so it had to surface every few hours to recharge its batteries. You should be able to watch the entire episode here:

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/the-...l-episode/905/

And after you've watched the show grab a beer or vodka (or whatever) and salute Valerie Arkhipov for his level headedness and courage. Then ask yourself what would have happened if he'd made the opposite decision.

Would any of us be here today?

Really interesting show. Well worth the time (a bit less than an hour).

[Ennath]

November 26, 1161
Battle of Caishi

By 1127, Jin, the dynasty founded by Jurchen nomads, had conquered most of northern China. The Jurchen general Wanyan Wuzhu crossed the Yangtze in 1130 and tried to capture Gaozong, but the emperor escaped. Wuzhu retreated north across the Yangtze, where he fought off a stronger Song fleet. The Jin persisted with their advance into the remaining Song territories south of the Yangtze. They faced an insurgency of Song loyalists in the north, the deaths of some important leaders, and military offensives by Song generals. The Jurchens created the puppet government of Da Qi to serve as a buffer state, but abolished it in 1137. As the Jin gave up on conquering the Southern Song, diplomatic talks resumed. Signed in 1142, the Treaty of Shaoxing established the boundary between the two states along the Huai River, which runs north of the Yangtze. The treaty forbade the Song from purchasing horses from the Jin, but smuggling continued in the border markets. The relations between the two states were mostly peaceful from 1142 to 1161, the year Prince Hailing went to war.

Prince Hailing was crowned Jin emperor in 1150 after killing his cousin and predecessor, in a palace coup. Hailing considered himself more of a Chinese authoritarian ruler than a Jurchen leader who ruled through a tribal council. His ultimate ambition was to rule over all of China and once he had become emperor, he pursued a policy of sinicizing the state. His affinity for the culture of the Song earned him the Jurchen nickname of “aping the Chinese”. He moved the Supreme Capital of the Jin from Manchuria to Beijing and promoted Kaifeng to his Southern Capital in 1157. He also moved government institutions south, tore down palaces of Jurchen chieftains in Manchuria, and constructed new palaces in Beijing and Kaifeng. Hailing's construction projects drained the Jin treasury.

Plans for a war against the Southern Song began in 1158. Hailing claimed that the Song had broken the 1142 treaty that banned them from acquiring horses. He understood that an invasion of the Song would require a lot of men. He ensured that Han Chinese soldiers were drafted into the war effort alongside Jurchen soldiers. Naval confrontations were likely because the Jin planned on traveling by river. Ships were seized for the war and 30,000 of the recruits were assigned to the Jin fleet. Hailing authorized the building of ships for the war in March 1159. The draft was unpopular. Several revolts erupted against it, many of them in the Jin provinces neighboring the Song. But Hailing allowed no dissent. He had his stepmother executed after hearing that she was critical of the war effort. In order to eliminate any challenge to his legitimacy as emperor of a united China, Hailing ordered the execution of all male members of the Song and Liao royal families in Jin territory. The execution of 130 members of the two royal clans in the span of a few months sparked a Khitan revolt in Manchuria. Hailing was forced to divert resources and men away from the war effort to suppress the rebellion.

Diplomatic exchanges did not stop during the period preceding the war. Emperor Gaozong hoped to maintain peaceful relations with the Song's northern neighbor. His reluctance to antagonize the Jin delayed the fortification of the border defenses. The Song built just three military garrisons in 1161. Hailing departed from Kaifeng on October 15, 1161. The offensive comprised four armies, and Hailing personally led the army that entered Anhui. The Jin passed the Huai River boundary on October 28, advancing into Song territory. The Song resistance was minimal because they had fortified the southern shore of the Yangtze River and not the Huai.

Hailing's army built its encampment near Yangzhou on the northern side of the Yangtze. The Jin advance had been slowed by Song victories in the west, where the Song captured several prefectures. Hailing commanded his forces to cross the Yangtze at Caishi, south of modern Nanjing. A naval battle between Jin and Song took place on November 26 and 27, 1161. The Song were led by Yu Yunwen – a scholar-official – and his lieutenants Dai Gao, Jian Kang and Shi Zhun. When Yu first arrived, the Song forces at Caishi were scattered and lacked a central leader. Yu took command and built a cohesive force. The Jin performed a ritual sacrifice of horses a day before the battle.

On November 26, Jin troops embarked from the shore of the Yangtze and engaged the Song fleet. Some of the ships they boarded were shoddily built. The Jin had lost several ships in Liangshan, where they were bogged down by the shallow depths of Liangshan Lake as they were being transported to the Grand Canal. Hailing had urgently requested the construction of more ships in 1161 to compensate for those still stuck in Liangshan. One account of the war contends that the Jin ships were constructed in a week with materials recycled from destroyed buildings. The poor quality and shortage of vessels prevented the Jin from ferrying more soldiers needed for fighting a naval battle with the Song.

The Song military response was likely stronger than Hailing had anticipated. A number of the Song vessels were treadle-powered paddle-wheel ships, which could move more rapidly and outmaneuver the slower Jin ships. The Song kept their fleet hidden behind the island of Qibao Shan. The ships were to depart the island once a scout on horseback announced the approach of the Jin ships by signaling a concealed flag atop the island's peak. Once the flag became visible, the Song fleet commenced their attack from both sides of the island. Song soldiers operated traction trebuchets that launched incendiaries which created a noxious explosion when the casing broke. The Jin soldiers who managed to cross the river and reach the shore were assaulted by Song troops waiting on the other side. The Song won a decisive victory. Hailing was defeated again in a second engagement the next day. After burning his remaining ships, he retreated to Yangzhou, where he was assassinated before he could finish preparations for another crossing.

The victory boosted the morale of the Song and increased dissatisfaction among the Jin army. News of the victory improved confidence in the government and bolstered the stability of the Song. The Jurchens gave up their ambitions of conquering the Southern Song and reunifying China. The Jin army withdrew in 1162, and diplomatic relations resumed. Emperor Gaozong retired nine months after the battle. The reasons are complicated, but his handling of the war may have had a part in his decision. He had ignored the warnings of a Jin attack and his hopes for conciliation held back plans for strengthening the Song defenses.

Military clashes continued in Huainan and Sichuan, but Jin incursions after Caishi had no intent of reaching the Yangtze. The Jin had discovered that southern China's many lakes and rivers impeded their cavalry. They signed a peace treaty with the Song in 1165, ending hostilities. The Huai River border remained the same and the Song continued to pay annual indemnities to the Jin, but the Song no longer recognized their state as a Jin vassal.

[Ennath]

November 27, 1838
The Pastry War

Widespread civil disorder that plagued the early years of the Mexican republic. In 1828, President Guadalupe Victoria ejected Lorenzo de Zavala from the office of governor of the state of Mexico. Zavala, supported by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, was able to rally most of the garrison in Mexico City (then a part of Mexico state) to his aid. Four days of fighting in Mexico City resulted in Zavala winning and installing a new president, Vicente Guerrero.

The fighting in the streets destroyed a great deal of personal property. The average citizen had little recourse for damages suffered. They had no consuls, or representatives to speak on their behalf. Foreigners whose property was damaged or destroyed by rioters or bandits were usually unable to obtain compensation from the government, and began to appeal to their own governments for help. Despite the repeated French claims, the French government let the matter subside.

In 1838 a French pastry cook, Remontel, claimed that his shop in Mexico City had been ruined by looting Mexican officers in 1828. He appealed to France's King Louis-Philippe. France demanded 600,000 pesos in damages. In addition, Mexico had defaulted on millions of dollars' worth of loans from France. Diplomat Baron Antoine Louis Deffaudis gave Mexico an ultimatum to pay, or the French would demand satisfaction. When the payment was not forthcoming from president Anastasio Bustamante, the king sent a fleet to insitute a blockade of all Mexican ports from Yucatan to the Rio Grande.

Two 60-gun ships and four smaller craft under Captain Francois Bazoche arrived off Veracruz on March 21, 1838, but failed to impress the Mexicans. The French squadron was small, badly supplied and suffering from yellow fever. On April 16, Bazoche declared Mexico’s ports in a state of quarantine. Bazoche died from the fever and was replaced by the enrgetic one-armed Rear Admiral Charles Baudin, with instructions to use force if necessary. His squadron included 4 frigates, 2 corvettes, 2 bomb vessels, 2 steamers and 8 small sailing ships, and reached Veracruz on October 26.

Baudin delivered an ultimatum to the Mexican government on November 17, increasing the demands by $200,000 to cover the cost of the expedition. On November 27, Mexico rejected the conditions.

That afternoon, the French opened a bombardment of the fortress of San Juan de Ulua, off the coast off Veracruz, using the new Paixhans explosive shells. After 2½ hours, the Mexican guns fell silent, and the French finally ceased fire at 9:00 PM after their fire had torn holes in the fortress’s soft, poorly maintained coral walls and detonated two powder magazines. The French lost 4 killed and 29 wounded to a Mexican loss of over 200. Both the fortress and the city of Veracruz capitulated. Also falling into French hands were a corvette, 2 sloops and 3 brigs moored beneath the fort, virtually the entire Mexican Navy.

President Bustamante was furious and declared war on France, ordering all French citizens expelled from Meixco within two weeks. Meanwhile, acting without explicit government authority, Santa Anna came out of retirement from his hacienda near Xalapa and asked the government to use his services; he was immediately ordered to fight the French by any means necessary. At the same time, reinforcements arrived from the north.

On December 5,, Admiral Baudin landed several hundred marines and gunners at three points along the waterfront. One column just missed capturing Santa Anna (who escpaed in his underwear), though it did capture General Mariano Arista, whom it found asleep. Baudin then ordered the raiders back to the ships. Santa Anna rallied some troops to harry the French and was wounded in the leg by French grapeshot. His leg was amputated, and buried with full military honors.

With trade cut off, the Mexicans began smuggling imports into Corpus Christi, Texas, and then into Mexico. Fearing that France would blockade Texan ports as well, a battalion of the Republic of Texas began patrolling Corpus Christi Bay to stop Mexican smugglers. The United States, ever watchful of its relations with Mexico, sent the schooner Woodbury to help the French in their blockade.

France obtained some satisfaction through the treaty signed on March 9, 1839, which awarded them and their citizens $600,000, granted each favored nation trade status with the other, and restored occupied territory to Mexico. France retained the captured warships, ensuring the Republic of Texas naval control of the Gulf of Mexico. French casualties were under 100, Mexico’s perhaps five times that number. Exploiting his wounds with eloquent propaganda, Santa Anna catapulted back to power.

[Ennath]

November 28, 1443
Skanderbeg’s Rebellion, Part 1

George Kastrioti was born in Albania in 1405. He seems to have gone to Sultan Murad II's court as a hostage in 1423. Skanderbeg participated in Ottoman campaigns and because of his military actions against the Christians his father had to seek forgiveness from the Venetian Senate in 1428. In 1430, Skanderbeg started fighting for Murad II in his expeditions, and gained the title of sipahi. In 1437–1438, he became a governor of the Kruje region of Albania. During his stay in Albania as Ottoman governor, he maintained close relations with the population and also with other Albanian noble families.

In early November 1443, Skanderbeg deserted the Ottoman forces during the Battle of Nish, against the Hungarians. He went to Kruje on November 28, and became lord of the city. After capturing some other minor surrounding castles, Skanderbeg abjured Islam and proclaimed himself the avenger of his country. He raised a red flag with the double-headed eagle silhouette on it: Albania uses a similar flag as national symbol to this day.

On March 2, 1444, Skanderbeg managed to bring together all the Albanian princes in the League of Lezhë. He organized a mobile army that forced the Ottomans to disperse their troops, leaving them vulnerable to the hit-and-run tactics of the Albanians. Skanderbeg fought a guerrilla war against the opposing armies by using the mountainous terrain to his advantage. During the first 8–10 years, Skanderbeg commanded an army of generally 10,000-15,000 soldiers, but only had absolute control over the men from his own dominions, and had to convince the other princes to follow his policies and tactics.

In the summer of 1444, in the Plain of Torvioll, the united Albanians under Skanderbeg faced the Ottomans under command of the Ali Pasha, with an army of 25,000. Skanderbeg had under his command 15,000. 3,000 cavalry were hidden behind enemy lines in a nearby forest under the command of Hamza Kastrioti. At a given signal they descended, encircled the Ottomans and gave Skanderbeg a much needed victory. About 8000 Ottomans were killed and 2000 were captured. In the following two years, Skanderbeg defeated the Ottomans two more times.

At the beginning of the Albanian insurrection, the Republic of Venice was supportive of Skanderbeg, considering his forces to be a buffer between them and the Ottoman Empire. Lezhë, where the league was established, was Venetian territory, and the assembly met with the approval of Venice. Skanderbeg’s rise as a strong force on their borders, however, was seen as a menace to the interests of the Republic, leading to a worsening of relations and the dispute over the fortress of Dagnum which triggered war in 1447-48. During the conflict, Venice invited the Ottomans to attack Skanderbeg simultaneously from the east, facing the Albanians with a two-front conflict.

On May 14, 1448, an Ottoman army led by Sultan Murad II and his son Mehmed laid siege to the castle of Svetigrad. The Albanian garrison resisted the frontal assaults, while Skanderbeg harassed the besieging forces. On July 23, Skanderbeg won a battle near Shkodër against a Venetian army led by Andrea Venier. In late summer, due to a lack of potable water, the Albanian garrison eventually surrendered the castle with the condition of safe passage through the Ottoman besieging forces, a condition which was accepted and respected by Sultan Murad II. In August, Skanderbeg won a battle against Mustafa Pasha in Dibër. This forced the Venetians to offer a peace treaty.

In June 1450, the Ottomans laid siege to Kruje with a large army and led again by Murad himself. Following a scorched earth strategy, Skanderbeg left a garrison of 1500 men, while, with the remainder of the army, he harassed the Ottoman supply caravans. The garrison repelled three major assaults, causing great losses. Ottoman attempts at cutting the water sources failed, as did a sapped tunnel, which collapsed. Murad acknowledged that he could not capture the castle before winter, and in October, he lifted the siege, leaving behind several thousand dead. A few months later, on February 3, 1451, Murad died in Edirne and was succeeded by his son Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481). After the siege, Skanderbeg was at the end of his resources. He lost all of his possessions except Kruje. The other nobles rejected Skanderbeg's efforts to enforce his authority over their domains. During the five years which followed the Siege of Kruje, Albania was allowed some respite, but a battle did take place in 1452 when another Ottoman army was defeated. The Turks began referring to Kastrioti as Iskander Beg (Lord Alexander, after Alexander the Great), Skanderbeg to the locals.

[Ennath]

November 28, 1443
Skanderbeg’s Rebellion, Part 2

In 1454, a Neapolitan expedition sent to aid the Albanians was annihilated at a siege of Berat. The siege was the first real test between the new sultan and Skanderbeg. Skanderbeg besieged the castle for months, causing the demoralized Ottoman commander to promise his surrender. At that point, Skanderbeg relaxed his grip, split his forces, and departed, leaving behind one of his generals, Muzakë Topia, and half of his cavalry to finalize the surrender. It was a costly error—the Ottomans saw this as an opportunity and sent a large cavalry force from Anatolia to reinforce the garrison. The Albanians had become overconfident and lulled into a false sense of security. The Ottomans caught the Albanian cavalry by surprise while they were resting on the banks of the Osum River, and almost all the allied force was killed.

In the summer of 1457, an Ottoman army of 70,000 invaded with the hope of destroying Albanian resistance once and for all. This army was led by Isak-Beg. After wreaking much damage to the countryside, the Ottoman army set up camp at the Ujebardha field. After having avoided the enemy for months, on September 2, Skanderbeg attacked the Ottoman forces in their camp and defeated them. This was one of his most famous victories, which led to a five-year peace treaty with Mehmed II.

In 1461, the Ottomans tried again. There were three Ottoman armies approaching: the first, under the command of Sinan Pasha, was defeated at Mokra, the second, under Hussain Bey, was defeated at Ohrid, where the Ottoman commander was captured, and the third was defeated near Skopje. This forced Mehmed to agree to a 10-year armistice, signed in April 1463 in Skopje.

Meanwhile, the position of Venice toward Skanderbeg had changed perceptibly because the Republic had entered into a new Ottoman war. During this period the Republic saw Skanderbeg as an invaluable ally, and on August 20, 1463, the peace treaty of 1448 was renewed and this time other conditions were added: the right of asylum in Venice, an article stipulating that any Venetian treaty with the Ottomans would include a guarantee of Albanian independence, and allowing the presence of several Venetian ships in the Adriatic waters around Lezhë.

In November 1463, Pope Pius II tried to organize a new crusade against the Ottomans, and the Venetians immediately answered the appeal. So did Skanderbeg, who declared war on the Ottomans and attacked their forces near Ohrid. However, Pius died in August 1464, at the crucial moment when the crusading armies were gathering and preparing to march in Ancona, and Skanderbeg was again left alone facing the Ottomans.

Later in 1465, two Ottoman armies appeared on the borders. The commander of one of the Ottoman armies was Ballaban Pasha, who, together with Jakup Bey, the commander of the second army, planned a double envelopment. Skanderbeg, however, defeated Ballaban's forces at Vajkal. The other army, under the command of Jakup Bey, was also defeated some days later in Kashari field near Tirana.

In 1466, Sultan Mehmed personally led an army of 30,000 into Albania and besieged Kruje. The town was defended by a garrison of 4400. After several months, he left the siege to return to Constantinople. However, he left the force of 30,000 under Ballaban Pasha to maintain the siege by building a castle in central Albania, which he named Il-basan (modern Elbasan), in order to support the siege. Durazzo would be the next target of the sultan in order to be used as a strong base opposite the Italian coast.

Skanderbeg spent the following winter of 1466-67 in Italy, trying to raise money. On his return, he defeated an Ottoman army on April 19, 1467 and four days later forced the Turks to abandon the siege of Kruje. After these events, Skanderbeg's forces besieged Elbasan but failed to capture it due to a lack of artillery and sufficient number of soldiers.

The destruction of Ballaban Pasha's army and the siege of Elbasan forced Mehmed II to march against Skanderbeg again in the summer of 1467. Skanderbeg retreated to the mountains while Ottoman grand vizier Mahmud Pasha Angelovic pursued him as Skanderbeg succeeded in fleeing to the coast. Mehmed energetically pursued the attacks against Albanian strongholds while sending detachments to raid the Venetian possessions (especially Durazzo) and to keep them isolated. The Ottomans failed in a 3rd siege of Kruje, but the destruction was immense.

During the Ottoman incursions, the Albanians suffered a great number of casualties, while the economy of the country was in ruins. In January 1468, Skanderbeg to call together all the remaining Albanian noblemen to a conference in the Venetian stronghold of Lezhë to discuss strategy and to restructure what remained from the League of Lezhë. During that period, Skanderbeg fell ill with malaria and died on January 17, 1468. He was 62.

After Skanderbeg's death, Venice obtained from his widow the permission to defend Kruje and other fortresses with Venetian garrisons. Kruje finally fell in a 4th siege in 1477-78, finally starved into surrender. Mehmed promised them safe conduct, but on the surrender reneged on this promise, killing the men and enslaving the women and children. In 1479, an Ottoman army, headed again by Mehmed II, besieged and captured Scutari, reducing Venice's Albanian possessions only to Durazzo, Antivari, and Dulcigno. The Albanian resistance to the Ottoman invasion continued after Skanderbeg's death by his son, Gjon Kastrioti II, who tried to liberate Albanian territories from Ottoman rule in 1481–1484. In addition, a major revolt in 1492 occurred in southern Albania, and Bayazid II was personally involved with crushing the resistance. The Venetians evacuated Durazzo in 1501.

Skanderbeg remains Albania’s greatest national hero.

[vintageadmirer]

There are contemporary sources that mention one of the Viking besiegers: Ragnar Lodbrok (furry pants), recently the hero of a TV miniseries. So it is quite certain that he was a historical character. According to legend, he was later to die in a snake pit on the orders of the Anglo-Saxon king Aella (However, that may be a borrowing from the heroic poem about King Gunder of Burgundy, betrayed and thrown among snakes by Attila the Hun).

Although the Vikings attacked and plundered some areas on the Continent during the 9th century, they failed to gain a foothold – with the exception of Normandy, granted to them as a duchy by King Louis the Fat. So most of them went back to their old stomping grounds, the British Isles, including the above-mentioned Ragnar.

[Ennath]

November 29, 1612
Battle of Swally

The initial voyages of the English East India Company were not necessarily to India. Each voyage was almost a venture in itself, separately funded by issuance of subscription stock. An eighth voyage was led in 1611 by Captain John Saris to Japan. The ninth voyage (February 1612 – August 1615) was to India and Sumatra. The goal, aside from trade, was to break the Portuguese monopoly in the Indian Ocean. Portugal was currently under Spanish rule and so the traditional Anglo-Portuguese alliance was suspended.

The tenth voyage (1612–1614) on behalf of the English East India Company was led by Captain Thomas Best. It set out from Gravesend on February 1, 1612 passing Daman and eventually reaching Surat on September 5, 1612. Surat was the principal port for the Mughals, and was then situated at the mouth of the river Tapti.

Coincidentally, on September 13, a squadron of 16 Portuguese barks sailed into Surat. On September 22, Captain Best decided to send an emissary to the Emperor asking for permission to trade and settle a factory at Surat. If refused he planned to quit the country. This may have been partly because King James I had extended the Company's charter in 1609 on the basis that it would be cancelled if no profitable ventures were concluded within three years. On September 30, Captain Best got news that two of his men were arrested while on shore. Fearing the worst, Captain Best detained a ship belonging to the Governor of Gujarat and offered to release it in exchange for his men.

On October 10, Best sailed to Suvali, a small town about 12 miles north of Surat. This may have been because the governor was battling a Rajput rebellion at a fort situated in the town. Between October 17-21, he managed to obtain a treaty with the Governor allowing trading privileges, subject to ratification by the Emperor.

On November 27, Captain Best was advised by his men on shore that a Portuguese squadron was sailing to attack him. The Portuguese ships (4 galleons and some 26 oared barks) arrived on the 28th, and anchored outside the roadstead placing the English vessels (4 galleons) between themselves and the town.

A skirmish took place between the two sqaudrons on the 29th without much damage to either side. At daylight on November 30, Captain Best in Red Dragon sailed through the four larger Portuguese ships running three of them aground, and was joined by Hosiander on the other side. The Portuguese managed to get the three galleons refloated. At 9:00 that night in an attempt to set the English ships alight, a bark was sent towards them as a fire ship. But the English watch was alert, and the bark was sunk by cannon fire with the loss of eight lives. A standoff remained until 5 December, when Captain Best sailed for the port of Diu.

This fight sufficiently impressed the governor of Gujarat, who reported it to the Emperor. Thereafter the Emperor began tilting toward the English rather than the Portuguese, whose position in India began to deteriorate.

[rondori]

vintageadmirer states

"Although the Vikings attacked and plundered some areas on the Continent during the 9th century, they failed to gain a foothold – with the exception of Normandy, granted to them as a duchy by King Louis the Fat. So most of them went back to their old stomping grounds, the British Isles, including the above-mentioned Ragnar."

Many sources credit the Rus as originating in Scandinavia and using Viking tactics on the rivers to conquer the land that bears their name. I think that Russia constitutes quite a 'foothold' on the European continent.