The Military History Thread

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May 26, 1249
Battle of Fossalta

In the spring of 1249, a Guelph army of the Lombard League advanced to the Panaro. The army was composed of 3000 knights and 2000 foot soldiers from Margrave Azzo VII d’Este and 1000 Knights and 800 foot soldiers of Bolognese militias from Porta Stieri, Porta San Procolo and Porta Ravegnana. The army was led by the Brescian Filippo Ugoni, who had victoriously defended Milan while besieged by Emperor Frederick II, and accompanied by Ottaviano degli Ubaldini, the Cardinal of Bologna.

The Guelph army threatened the Ghibelline city of Modena and so the Modenese had requested help from Enzio of Sardinia, who was then imperial vicar in northern Italy, and resided at Cremona. Enzio organized a massive Imperial army of 15,000 men, composed of Germans and Lombard Ghibellines from Cremona and Modena. He led the army across the Po at Bugno and they arrived at the Fossalta stream, some 3 miles north of Modena.

Both armies faced each other for days, yet neither dared to attack. On May 26, Enzio ordered his troops to deploy for battle; he split his army into 3 corps and positioned them in 2 lines. Ugoni divided his forces into 4 corps on a broad line. Once, the 2000 additional troops from Bologna had arrived, Ugoni prepared to attack.

At dawn, the Guelph army furiously attacked; after a long struggle, the Guelphs were brought to a halt. But Bolognese attacks continued all day. Losses on both sides were heavy. By evening the Imperial line was bent and Enzio’s horse was killed beneath him. The Bolognese pressed their attack and the Imperials broke. The fleeing army, which fought with the network of canals and streams to their back, was now an easy target for the Bolognese and the pursuit caused fearful casualties.

The Bolognese took many German and Cremonese prisoners, including at least 400 knights; among these was Enzio. On the return to the victorious army to Bologna the defeated commander was put in golden chains and paraded around town on a horse. He would spend the rest of his life in the Bolognese palace thenceforth named after him, the Palazzo Re Enzo.

The battle did not change or shape the contemporary politics or map of Italy. But the defeat and the imprisonment of his son Enzio was a heavy blow for Emperor Frederick II. Frederick demanded the release of Enzio, but the Bolognese stood firm.

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May 27, 1905
Battle of Tsushima

After the Dogger Bank Incident (see posting), which nearly led to war between Britain and Russia, the Russian Baltic Fleet (Adm. Zinovy Rozhestvensky) was barred from using the Suez Canal in its voyage to the Far East and had to take the longer route around Africa. By April 1905, the Russian ships had anchored at Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina. With rough seas on the passage and difficulty in obtaining coal (the warships could not legally fuel in neutral ports), the morale of the crews was low. The Russians needed 450,000 tons of coal and 30-40 refueling sessions to reach Cam Ranh Bay. This was provided by 60 colliers from the Hamburg-Amerika Line.

The Russians had been ordered to break the blockade of Port Arthur, but the city had fallen on January 2 (see posting). The objective was therefore shifted to linking up with the remaining Russian ships stationed at Vladivostok, before bringing the Japanese fleet to battle. There were 3 possible routes to Vladivostok; Rozhestvensky chose Tsushima Straight in an effort to simplify his route. Adm. Heihachiro Togo, commanding the Japanese Combined Fleet, also believed Tsushima would be the Russian course. The strait is east of the Tsushima Island group, located midway between Kyushu and the Korean Peninsula, the most direct route from Indochina. The other routes would have required the fleet to sail east around Japan.

The Russians had 8 battleships, 3 coastal battleships, 3 armored and 5 protected cruisers and 9 destroyers, plus 12 auxiliaries. Togo led 5 battleships, 8 armored and 13 protected cruisers, 20 destroyers and 16 torpedo boats, plus 19 auxiliaries. Because of the long journey, the Russian fleet was in relatively poor condition; lack of opportunity for maintenance meant that many were heavily fouled, reducing their speed. Many of the ships were not the most modern. The best were the 4 new Borodinoclass battleships.

Because the Russians desired to slip undetected into Vladivostok, as they approached Japanese waters they steered outside regular shipping channels to reduce the chance of detection. On the night of May 26-27, aided by a thick fog, the fleet approached the Tsushima Strait. At 0245 Japan Standard Time (JST), the Japanese auxiliary cruiser Shinano Maru observed 3 lights on the distant horizon and closed to investigate. These lights were from the Russian hospital ship Orel, which, in compliance with the rules of war, had continued to burn them. At 0430, Shinano Maru approached, noting that Orel appeared to be an auxiliary. Orel mistook the Japanese for another Russian vessel and did not attempt to notify the fleet. Shinano Maru then sighted the shapes of 10 other Russian ships in the mist. Shinano Maru sent a message to Togo reporting the sighting. Any chance of reaching Vladivostok undetected had disappeared. By 0500, intercepted radio signals informed the Russians that they had been discovered and that Japanese cruisers were shadowing them. Togo sailed at 0635, with his flag in Mikasa. There was mist which reduced visibility and the weather was poor.

At 1340, both fleets sighted each other and prepared to engage. At 1355, Togo ordered the hoisting of the Z flag, signaling the fleet “The Empire's fate depends on the result of this battle, let every man do his utmost duty.”

By 1445, Togo had ‘crossed the Russian T’, taking advantage of his ships’ higher speed to pass his battle line across the bow of the Russian line, enabling him to fire broadsides, while the Russians could only reply with their forward turrets. The Russians sailed from south southwest to north-northeast The Japanese fleet steamed from northeast to west, then Togo ordered the fleet to turn in sequence, which enabled his ships to take the same course as the Russians, although risking each battleship consecutively. Although Togo’s U-turn was successful, Russian gunnery had proven surprisingly good and Mikasa was hit 15 times in 5 minutes. Rozhestvensky had only two alternatives, “a charge direct, in line abreast”, or to commence “a formal pitched battle.” He chose the latter, and at 1408, Mikasa was hit at about 7000 yards. Superior Japanese gunnery then took its toll.

Ninety minutes into the battle, the first warship to be sunk was the Russian battleship Oslyabya. This was the first time a modern armored warship had been sunk by gunfire alone. A direct hit on the battleship Borodino’s magazines by the battleship Fujicaused her to explode, which sent smoke thousands of yards into the air and trapped all of her crew on board as she sank. Rozhestvensky was knocked out of action by a shell fragment that struck his skull. In the evening, Rear Adm. Nikolai Nebogatov took over command of the Russian fleet. The Russians lost the battleships Knyaz Suvorov, Oslyabya, Imperator Alexander III and Borodino. The Japanese ships suffered only light damage.

At night, around 2000, the Japanese destroyers and torpedo boats were thrown against the Russians. The destroyers attacked from the vanguard while the torpedo boats attacked from the east and south. The Japanese were aggressive, continuing their attacks for 3 hours; as a result during the night, there were a number of collisions between the small craft and Russian warships. The Russians were now dispersed in small groups trying to break northwards. By 2300, it appeared that the Russians had vanished, but they revealed their positions to their pursuers by switching on their searchlights - ironically, these had been turned on to spot the attackers.

The old battleship Navarin struck a mine and was compelled to stop; she was subsequently torpedoed 4 times and sunk. Out of a crew of 622, only 3 survived. The battleship Sissoi Veliky was badly damaged by a torpedo in the stern, and was scuttled the next day. Two old armored cruisers - Admiral Nakhimov and Vladimir Monomakh - were badly damaged, the former by a torpedo hit to the bow, the latter by colliding with a Japanese destroyer. They were both scuttled the next morning. The night attacks had put a great strain on the Russians, while the Japanese had only lost 3 torpedo boats.

At 0930 on May 28, what remained of the Russian fleet was sighted heading north. Togo’s battleships proceeded to surround Nebogatov’s remaining squadron south of the island of Takeshima and commenced main battery fire at 12,000 yards. Realizing that most of his guns were badly outranged, Nebogatov ordered the 6 ships remaining under his command to surrender. XGE, an international signal of surrender, was hoisted; however, the Japanese continued to fire as they did not have “surrender” in their code books and had to hastily find one that did. Still under heavy fire, Nebogatov then ordered white table cloths sent up the mastheads, but Togo, having had a Chinese warship escape him while flying that flag during the 1894 war did not trust them, and continued to fire. The Russian cruiser Izumrud then lowered her XGE surrender flag and attempted to flee; she was later forced aground and scuttled. Running out of options, Nebogatov ordered the Imperial Japanese Navy flag up the mastheads and all engines stopped. When Japanese flags began showing up in 12-inch gun range finders, Togo gave the cease fire and accepted Nebogatov’s surrender. Until the evening of May 28, isolated Russian ships were pursued until almost all were destroyed or captured. Three Russian warships reached Vladivostok. Three more were interned by the Americans at Manila and one was detained by the Chinese.

The wounded Adm. Rozhestvensky went to a Japanese hospital to recover; there, the victorious Adm. Togo visited him, comforting him with kind words: “Defeat is a common fate of a soldier. There is nothing to be ashamed of in it. The great point is whether we have performed our duty”. Neither Nebogatov nor Rozhestvensky were shot when they returned home to Russia. However, both were placed on trial. Rozhestvensky claimed full responsibility for the fiasco; but as he had been wounded and unconscious during the last part of the battle, the Tsar commuted his death sentence. Nebogatov, having surrendered the fleet at the end of the engagement, was imprisoned for several years and eventually pardoned by the Tsar. Both men's reputations were ruined.

The Russians lost 4380 men killed and 5917 captured, including 2 admirals, with a further 1862 interned. All 11 battleships were lost, along with 3 armored and 1 protected cruisers, and 6 destroyers. Japanese losses were 3 torpedo boats, 117 men killed and 583 wounded.

Imperial Russia's prestige was badly damaged and the defeat was a blow to the Romanov dynasty. In The Guns of August, Barbara Tuchman argued that because Russia’s loss destabilized the balance of power in Europe, it emboldened the Central Powers and contributed to their decision to go to war in 1914.

The battle had a profound cultural and political impact on Japan. It was the first defeat of a European power by an Asian nation in the modern era. It also weakened the notion of white superiority. The victory established Japan as the sixth greatest naval power while the Russian navy declined to one barely stronger than that of Austria-Hungary. British historian Geoffrey Regan argues that the victory bolstered Japan’s increasingly aggressive political and military establishment. He also believes the victory contributed to the Japanese road to later disaster, “because the result was so misleading. Certainly the Japanese navy had performed well, but its opponents had been weak, and it was not invincible... Togo’s victory [helped] set Japan on a path that would eventually lead her” to the Second World War.

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May 28, 1940
The Lille Pocket

On the night of May 27-28, the BEF divisions near Lille were able to retreat over the Lys but only III Corps of French 1st Army (Gen. René Prioux) managed to get away. Many of the French units had retreated from much further south and were still around Lille, when German units attacking from the west and east met behind the city. German 4th, 5th and 7th Panzer Divisions, and 11th, 217th, 253rd and 267th Infantry Divisions surrounded the remaining 2 corps in Lille (1st Motorized, 2nd and 5th North African, 1st Moroccan and 15th Infantry Divisions). Here the 35,000 trapped French troops faced 160,000 Germans. Jean-Baptiste Molinié led the defense, taking over when Prioux was captured.

French IV and V Corps attempted a breakout on the west side of Lille, towards the Lys at 7:30 p.m. on May 28. 2nd North African Division (2e DINA) tried to cross the Deule River over the bridge to Sequedin (just south of Lomme). 5th North African Division (5e DINA) tried to escape over the Moulin Rouge bridge on the Santes road, south of Haubourdin. Another attempt was made during the morning of the 29th. The Germans had mined the bridge but 2 French tanks and 2 companies of infantry got across, although they were then repulsed.

For the next four days, Gen. Molinié and mainly French North African troops (most of them pieds-noirs, French colonists) fought on. They even managed to capture German Gen. Fritz Kühne. Finally, on the evening of May 31, ammunition began to run out and the defense of the pocket collapsed. The French surrendered on June 1. In recognition of the garrison’s stubborn defense, German general Kurt Waeger granted them the traditional honors of war. The French troops marched through the Grand Place of Lille in parade formation with rifles shouldered, as Gen. Waeger and his troops stood at attention. Waeger was reprimanded for this action.

In The Second World War (1949), Winston Churchill described the defense of Lille as a “splendid contribution”, which delayed the German advance for 4 days and allowed the escape of the British Expeditionary Force from Dunkirk. William Shirer wrote in 1969 that the defense of Lille “helped the beleaguered Anglo-French forces around the port to hold out for an additional two to three days and thus save at least 100,000 more troops”.

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May 29, 1658
Battle of Samugarh

The 4 sons of Shah Jahan all held governorships during their father’s reign; the eldest Dara Shikoh was the favorite. The younger 3 cooperated against him. There was no Mughal tradition of primogeniture; instead it was customary for sons to overthrow their father and for brothers to war among themselves. The contest was primarily between Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb, the 3rd son, because, although all 4 sons had demonstrated competence, it was around these 2 that officials and other influential people mostly circulated. There were ideological differences - Dara was an intellectual and a religious liberal, while Aurangzeb was much more zealous, but factional lines in the succession dispute were not, by and large, shaped by ideology.

Having made clear that he wanted Dara to succeed him, Shah Jahan became ill with stranguary in 1657 and was closeted under the care of his favorite son in the newly built city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi). Rumors of the death of Shah Jahan abounded and the younger sons were concerned that Dara might be hiding it for Machiavellian reasons. Thus, they took action: Shah Shuja in Bengal, where he had been governor since 1637, crowned himself King Muhammad Shuja at Raj Mahal, and brought his cavalry, artillery and river flotilla upriver towards Agra. Near Varanasi his forces confronted a defending army sent from Delhi under the command of Prince Sulaiman Shukoh, son of Dara, and Raja Jai Singh while Murad did the same in his governorship of Gujarat and Aurangzeb did so in the Deccan.

After regaining some of his health, Shah Jahan moved to Agra and Dara urged him to send forces to challenge Shah Shuja and Murad, who had declared themselves rulers in their respective territories. While Shah Shuja was defeated at Banares in February 1658, the army sent to deal with Murad discovered to their surprise that he and Aurangzeb had combined their forces, the two brothers having agreed to partition the empire once they had gained control. The two armies clashed at Dharmat in April, with Aurangzeb being the victor. Dara was still in pursuit of Shuja in Bihar, and was now confronted with 2 enemy armies. However, Dara had apparently become overconfident in his abilities and ignored advice not to lead in battle while his father was still alive.

Realizing that his recalled Bihar forces would not arrive at Agra in time to resist the emboldened Aurangzeb’s advance, Dara scrambled to form alliances but found that Aurangzeb had already courted key potential candidates. Dara began to retreat towards Samugarh, about 10 miles east of Agra, south of the Yamuna River. He had a disparate, hastily concocted army of 60,000 men and 80 guns. Aurangzeb and his smaller but formidable army of 40,000 veterans and 60 guns then flanked Dara’s fortified line along the Chambal River by finding a little-known and unguarded ford. The battle was fought during northern India’s warmest season and Aurangzeb’s men were on the march for a long while. Dara then tried to protect his rear by erecting massive red tents and banners.

Dara ordered his large cannons from Jaigarh Fort to be chained together (limiting their mobility). Zamburaks (camel-mounted swivel guns) were positioned behind the cannons and matchlockmen defended the artillery. Aurangzeb deployed in a similar manner. However his experienced and accomplished general Mir Jumla II, positioned hidden guns in strategic locations across the battlefield.

Aurangzeb’s left flank was commanded by Murad Baksh and his elite Mughal Sowars; the rest of the army was effectively under the command of Aurangzeb and Mir Jumla II. Murshid Quli Khan was assigned as artillery chief. Dara on the other hand, divided his army, his far right was commanded by Rao Chhatrasal Hada the Rajput, his main right was commanded by Rustam Khan Deccani, his elite Mughal Sowars were commanded by Khalilullah Khan, an Uzbek. Dara was waiting on the arrival of his son Sulaiman Shikoh commanding 40,000 men.

The battle opened with an artillery duel, briefly interrupted by rain. Stung by the cannonfire Murad Baksh launched his wing in a charge at Rao Chhatrasal Hada without orders. The legend is that the 2 men were sworn enemies. The ensuing melee left both sides badly bloodied. Khalilullah Khan refused to aid the Rajputs and instead guided his forces to protect Dara. Fearing the collapse of Rao Chhatrasal Hadaa and the Rajputs, Rustam Khan Deccani, led a massive charge towards Aurangzeb’s gun line in his attempt to flank and attack Murad Baksh from behind, but his efforts were met by ferocious cannonfire that eventually caused the death of Rustam and many of Dara’s best cavalry. Meanwhile, command casualties were leaving the Rajputs virtually leaderless. They began to collapse.

When Dara Shikoh was informed of the collapse of the Rajput infantry and the Deccan Sowars he immediately pushed to their aid alongside Khalilullah Khan in an attempt to stop the wounded but formidable Murad Baksh. But Dara faced heavy cannonfire the whole way, causing massive disarray among his ranks. The outcome of the battle was decided when Dara descended from his elephant at the most critical moment of the battle; his elephant then fled. This was evidence enough for Dara Shikoh’s troops who mistook this event to indicate his death. Thousands surrendered to Aurangzeb when his military band played the ode of victory. Many more fled only to take the oath of allegiance to Aurangzeb later on. Dara and Khalilullah Khan fled towards Sulaiman Shikoh and Aurangzeb was declared the new Mughal Emperor.

Aurangzeb then marched on Agra which he besieged, however not until he closed down the city’s water supply did his father finally surrender. Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the Red Fort, where he spent 8 long years under the care of his favorite daughter Jahanara. Later Khalilullah Khan swore an oath of allegiance to Aurangzeb. Eventually both Dara Shikoh and Sulaiman Shikoh were captured by the Afghan Malik Jiwan Khan, and handed over to Aurangzeb. Dara was paraded through the streets of Agra and later declared a non-Muslim during a smear campaign by Aurangzeb. He was later executed along with his son Sulaiman. However Aurangzeb’s woes had not ended and another ferocious battle was fought between Aurangzeb and his elder brother Shuja during the Battle of Khajwa (January 5, 1659). Shuja’s much smaller army fought hard, but was routed, with its commander captured and eventually executed. After this, Aurangzeb ruled unchallenged.

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357 BC
Syracusan Revolution

The Sicilian Greek city of Syracuse had been ruled by the tyrants Dionysius I (406-367 BC) and his son and successor Dionysius II (367-56 BC) for close to 50 years. (In ancient Greece, the term Tyrant did not necessarily mean an oppressive and bloody ruler; it merely meant that the ruler did not have legitimacy.) The exiled Dion, a relative of the tyrants and an admirer of Plato, started military operations in 360 BC to liberate the city-state from the tyrant’s rule, basing himself in Corinth and helped by his friend Heracleides, another exile.

Dion landed in Sicily in August 357 BC, leading mercenary troops and taking advantage of Dionysius II’s sojourn in a colony in Italy. As he approached the city, the population rose in rebellion and the tyrant’s commander lost control of the city, though a strong garrison continued to hold the citadel of Ortygia for Dionysius. Dion declared the liberation of Syracusans and other Siciliotes from tyranny and was elected to head the new executive body. He was soon joined by Heracleides, who came with a fleet and more mercenaries.

However, Dion soon lost the support of the masses through his opposition to the traditional democracy and economic measures they demanded - demands backed by Heracleides and his fleet. This fleet won a decisive victory over the fleet of Dionysius in the spring of 356 BC, giving the upper hand to the opponents of Dion. The popular assembly voted to cut off payment of Dion’s mercenaries, to elect a new executive, and to carry out a redistribution of land and houses. Another resolution concerned the entire territory of Syracuse and was aimed at property equality. Dion and his mercenaries left Syracuse, but the revolutionary government did not last long. Defeated by the troops of Dionysius II, the Syracusans recalled Dion, who again saved them. However, his quarrel with Heracleides resumed and he had his erstwhile friend killed. Virtually sole master of Syracuse, he was suspected of an attempt at tyranny and was murdered in 354 BC by another disciple of Plato.

Dionysius ruled in Locri and returned to power in Syracuse in 346 BC, but was driven out again 2 years later and died the following year.

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May 30, 1735
Fall of Asuncion

The revolt originated in the longstanding hostility of Paraguayans to the Society of Jesus. Paraguayans coveted Jesuit lands, commercial privileges, and the monopoly on Guarani labor in Jesuit missions. In 1717, Diego de los Reyes Balmaseda became governor of Paraguay. He purchased the position from the Spanish authorities, a practice that had spread at the time. Reyes was a merchant who had made his fortune trading with Paraguay, so he was seen as qualified by the Spanish Crown. Reyes was an open admirer of the Jesuits and also acquired a reputation for enriching himself using the powers of his office to control trade. He taxed important members of the Paraguayan elite to fund the construction of defensive works. The end result was that Reyes was deeply unpopular. In a bid to keep his position, he accused his chief antagonists of treason and had them imprisoned. The notables of Asuncion complained to the audencia, the regional legislature.

In 1721, the audencia sent judge José de Antequera y Castro to dispense justice as he saw fit. Antequera was a young rising star of the court, and even his fiercest critics wrote that he was likable, intelligent, and unusually well-educated. After reviewing the facts, he concluded that the evidence was so strong as to warrant the immediate arrest of Reyes in September 1721. In April 1722, Antequera officially found Reyes guilty and dismissed him as governor, although Reyes immediately escaped. Antequera proceeded to impound much of Reyes’ property and also order the arrest of many of his friends and supporters, taking their property to be sold at public auction. Antequera earned the support of the majority of the province, though he was hated by those who had done well under Reyes. Antequera clinched his popularity by taking a stand against the hated Jesuits; he endorsed settlers’ demands that the mission Indians be distributed to the encomienda, that government-paid priests be put in charge of the missions, and that a customs house be established to enforce limits on Jesuit exports.

However, friends of Reyes reached Lima, where they pleaded their case to the Viceregal court. With the support of the influential Jesuits, they convinced Viceroy of Peru Diego Morcillo that Reyes was the victim of a plot by jealous Paraguayans and an ambitious Antequera. The situation degenerated further after a group of men loyal to Antequera came to Corrientes and kidnapped Reyes in the night, dragging him back to Asuncion - a highly illegal act in the eyes of the Viceroy, as the government of Paraguay had no lawful power in Corrientes. Enraged, the Viceroy finally opted for military force, ordering Governor Zavala of Buenos Aires to prepare an army to march on Asuncion to depose Antequera.

Antequera rallied the Paraguayan militia, while Zavala sent his lieutenant governor Baltasar García Ros to marshal both Jesuit mission Indians, his own troops from Buenos Aires, and reinforcements from Villa Rica. The armies exchanged hostile letters, and it seemed briefly that a show of force might persuade the other side to back down. However, on August 25, 1724, the Paraguayans misinterpreted Indians celebrating the feast of San Luis as preparations for an attack. The 3000 Paraguayans attacked the Indians and won a complete victory with the element of surprise. Hundreds of Indians were killed, all of the arms, ammunition, and papers were taken, and the royal army was forced into full retreat. A band of citizens of Villa Rica who arrived late as reinforcements surrendered immediately, and saw their leader executed. The victory came unexpectedly cheap, as well; only 5 settlers were killed, and 20 wounded. 150 captured mission Indians were distributed to the settlers in encomienda servitude.

However, the new Viceroy, the marquis of Castelforte, was not about to allow disobedience to the lawful authorities to spread. The audencia, under viceregal pressure, abandoned Antequera. A stronger force was sent under Zavala personally. Zavala additionally guaranteed that the Jesuit mission Indians would not enter the civil territory this time if the settlers submitted peacefully. Zavala made no mention of retribution or arrests. Antequera fled to Charcas, where he was arrested. Martin de Barua was installed as the new governor.

Antequera was taken to Lima in 1726 to stand trial. His confinement in the viceregal palace proved so mild, however, that he was able to dispatch his confederate Fernando de Mompos y Zayas back into Paraguay to organize a second uprising. Unlike the first rising, which entailed a dispute between aristocratic leaders, the new rising would involve the common citizens (comuneros). Even Barua joined in, venting his wrath against the Jesuits. For months, the comuneros ruled in and around Asuncion, and when Barua stepped down in 1730 the established a republic. José Luis Barreyo was named president. This in turn provoked the Viceroy to find Antequera and his lieutenant Juan de Mena guilty of heresy and treason in Lima and order their executions. The sentence was unpopular enough to cause riots; the Viceroy’s troops shot Antequera on his way to the gallows on July 3, 1731.

The Paraguayan revolt meanwhile played itself out. The rebel leaders quarreled, Barreyo arresting Mompos, who escaped his guards while being brought to Lima, and fleeing to Brazil. eventually Governor Zavala sent a new Guarani army to end the rebellion once and for all. The rebels were defeated at Tapabuy and Zavala entered Asuncion with his army on May 30, 1735 to execute the last remaining rebel leaders.

Paraguay remained poor and somewhat discontented. Higher taxes imposed later further squeezed export income, and the Jesuit missions continued to be a hated competitor driving down prices of the Paraguayans’ cash crop, yerba maté. Antequera became a folk hero and martyr.

The Jesuits, however, saw their previously solid support in the courts of Europe dry up in the middle of the 18th century. The Jesuit missions grated against the Enlightenment values which were gaining favor among intellectuals. Both the Jesuits and their enemies agreed that the Jesuits were wealthy and prosperous: according to their enemies, due to illegal theft of the best land and corruption; according to the Jesuits, due to their own ability, intellect, and hard work. The Jesuits had lost the support of the Portuguese government in 1750 after they opposed the Treaty of Madrid which led to the Guaraní War; they were expelled from the Portuguese Empire entirely in 1758. The Jesuits next lost the support of Charles III of Spain and they were expelled from the Spanish Empire. In 1767, they were expelled from their college in Asuncion, to the elation of its citizens; by the end of 1768, the Jesuits had been expelled from the missions and replaced by secular administrators. The best lands in the former mission territories were quickly taken by white settlers; the herds of cattle were impounded and dwindled; and the mission Indians scattered and diminished. Within a short period of time, the Jesuit missions of Paraguay were but a memory.

The comuneros’ reputation was rehabilitated; already folk heroes, the Spanish government softened its stance as well. A new inquiry in Madrid concluded that Antequera had been the victim of a Jesuit conspiracy. On April 1, 1778, King Charles III signed a document which declared Antequera had been a dedicated and loyal servant of the Crown, and provided pensions for some of his relatives. Both Lima and Asuncion feature streets named after Antequera. A monument on a hill in Asuncion honors Antequera and all those who fought and died in the Revolt of the Comuneros as precursors to Latin America’s liberation movements.

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May 31, 1942
SydneyHarbor Raid

In the late afternoon of May 31, 1942 three Japanese submarines, I-22, I-24 and I-27, about 7 nautical miles out from Sydney Harbor, each launched a Type A midget submarine for an attack on shipping in the harbor. The night before, I-24 had launched a small floatplane that flew over the harbor, its crew spotting a prize target - the American heavy cruiser Chicago. The Japanese hoped to sink this ship and perhaps others anchored in the harbor. The Japanese originally intended to use 6 submarines in the attack. Two were detached to scout possible harbors to determine the most suitable for attack. Nouméa, New Caledonia, Suva, Fiji and Auckland, New Zealand were all scouted, along with Sydney, which was selected. The 4 remaining submarines proceeded to Truk to embark their midget sub; one, I-28, was torpedoed on the surface by the American submarine Tautog. After launching the 3 two-man midget subs, the mother submarines moved to a new position off Port Hacking to await their return. They would wait there until June 3.

The naval officer-in-charge of Sydney Harbor was Rear Adm. Gerard Muirhead-Gould of the Royal Navy. On the night of the attack, 3 major vessels were present; the heavy cruisers USS Chicago and HMAS Canberra, and the light cruiser HMAS Adelaide. Other warships in the harbor included an American destroyer tender, 2 Australian and 1 Indian corvettes, 2 armed merchant cruisers and an auxiliary minelayer. The static defenses consisted of 8 anti-submarine indicator loops, as well as the partially constructed boom net between George’s Head on Middle Head and Green Point on Inner South Head. On the day of the attack, the 6 outer indicator loops were inactive; 2 were not functioning and there were not enough trained personnel to man both the inner and outer loop monitoring stations. The North Head - South Head loop had been giving faulty signals since early 1940, and as civilian traffic regularly passed over, readings were often ignored. Harbor defense craft included the anti-submarine vessels HMAS Yandra and Bingera, 2 auxiliary minesweepers, pleasure launches converted to channel patrol boats (and armed with depth charges), and 4 unarmed auxiliary patrol boats.

All 3 midget submarines made it into the harbor. Electronic detection equipment picked up the signature of the first (from I-24) late that evening but it was thought to be either a ferry or another vessel on the surface passing by. Later, a Maritime Services Board watchman spotted an object caught in an anti-submarine net. After investigation, patrol boats reported it was a submarine and the general alarm was raised just before 10:30 PM. Soon afterwards, the midget sub’s crew, realizing they were trapped, blew up their craft and themselves. Before midnight, alert sailors on the deck of USS Chicago spotted another midget submarine. They turned a searchlight on it and opened fire but it escaped. Later, gunners on the corvette HMAS Geelong also fired on a suspicious object believed to be the submarine.

The response to the attack was marred by confusion. Vision was limited and ferries continued to run as the midget submarines were hunted. At about 12:30 AM there was an explosion on the naval depot ship HMAS Kuttabul, a converted harbor ferry, which was moored at Garden Island as an accommodation vessel. The crew of the midget submarine from I-24 had fired at USS Chicago but missed, the torpedo striking Kuttabul instead. 19 Australian and 2 British sailors on board died, the only Allied deaths resulting from the attack, and survivors were pulled from the sinking vessel. A second torpedo fired by the same midget submarine ran aground on rocks on the eastern side of Garden Island, failing to explode. Having fired both their torpedoes, the crew made for the harbor entrance but disappeared, their craft perhaps running out of fuel before reaching the rendezvous point.

The third midget submarine failed to make it far into the harbor. Spotted in Taylors Bay and attacked with depth charges by naval harbor patrol vessels, Lt. Keiu Matsuo and Petty Officer Masao Tsuzuku shot themselves. The mother submarines departed the area after it became obvious that their midget submarines would not be returning.

The bodies of the 4 Japanese crewmen from the midget submarines launched by I-22 and I-27 were recovered when these vessels were raised. They were cremated at Sydney’s Eastern Suburbs Crematorium with full naval honors. The admiral’s decision to accord the enemy a military funeral was criticized by many Australians but he defended his decision to honor the submariners’ bravery. He also hoped that showing respect for the dead men might help to improve the conditions of Australians in Japanese prisoner of war camps.

The attack on Sydney Harbor ended in failure on both sides, and revealed flaws in both the Allied defenses and the Japanese tactics. During the primary attack, the Japanese lost all 3 midget submarines in exchange for the sinking of a single barracks ship. The subsequent operations by the mother subs were no more successful as the 5 large Japanese submarines sank only 3 merchant ships and caused minimal property damage during 2 bombardments, of Sydney and Newcastle. The performance of the Allied defenders was equally poor.

The main impact of the midget submarine attack and subsequent operations was psychological; dispelling any belief that Sydney was immune to Japanese attack and highlighting Australia's proximity to the Pacific War. There was no official inquiry into the attacks, despite demand from some sections of the media, as there was concern that an inquiry would lead to defeatism and reduce faith in John Curtin’s government, particularly after the damaging inquiry into Australian defenses that had followed the Japanese air attack on Darwin 3 months earlier.

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June 1, 1648
Battle of Maidstone

Civil disturbances broke out in London and Canterbury during December 1647 over Parliament’s attempt to suppress traditional Christmas celebrations. In London, the lord mayor personally intervened to calm the situation, but at Canterbury the mayor was driven out of the city, along with several magistrates and clergymen. The Kent county committee was obliged to mobilize the Trained Bands to restore order. Extensive rioting broke out during April 1648 in several places around the country, including London, Norwich and Bury St Edmunds, with rioters demanding the return of King Charles to full power. In combination with the Royalist uprising in south Wales, the Engager threat from Scotland and a revolt in the navy, the situation was growing increasingly dangerous for Parliament.

A Royalist rebellion broke out in Kent after the county committee at Canterbury had attempted to suppress a petition calling for the return of the King and the disbandment of the New Model Army. Canterbury, Rochester, Sittingbourne, Faversham and Sandwich were seized by Royalist insurgents on May 21, 1648. The following day, at a meeting in Rochester attended by many of the local gentry, an armed gathering of Kent Royalists was scheduled to be held at Blackheath on May 30 in support of the petition. On May 26, Dartford and Deptford were seized by insurgents. A naval revolt broke out on May 27 when ships of the Parliamentarian fleet declared for the King. Threatened from the sea, the 3 forts that guarded the anchorage of the Downs - Deal, Sandown and Walmer - surrendered to the Royalists and Dover castle was besieged.

Gen. Thomas Fairfax had been preparing to march north against the threat of invasion from Scotland. With rebellion so close to London and the danger that the Kent insurgents would be joined by Royalists from Essex and Surrey, Parliament ordered Fairfax to deal with the immediate threat. On May 27, Fairfax mustered his troops on Hounslow Heath. Col. John Barkstead secured Southwark to the south of London, while the Trained Bands under Maj-Gen. Philip Skippon were mobilized to defend the city itself. By May 30, Fairfax had advanced to Blackheath. On rumors of his approach, the Royalists at Deptford and Dartford dispersed. Leaving a detachment at Croydon to act as a rearguard against any threat from Surrey, Fairfax bypassed the insurgents’ stronghold of Rochester and marched for Maidstone where an army of Kent Royalists was assembling on Penenden Heath.

The Earl of Norwich was proclaimed leader of the Kent Royalists at a rendezvous at Burham Heath between Rochester and Maidstone on May 29. Norwich concentrated his forces at Maidstone, deploying a detachment to guard the outskirts and throwing up barricades around the town itself. With about 3000 troops to defend the town, Norwich remained with his main force of around 7000 men on Penenden Heath. Most of the Royalists were not soldiers, being described as “cavaliers, citizens, seamen and watermen”.

At 4:00 in the afternoon of June 1, Fairfax arrived at the head of 8000 New Model Army veterans. Rather than make a direct assault on Maidstone or attack the main Royalist force, Fairfax turned the enemy’s flank by attacking the outpost at Farleigh Bridge, with a feint towards Aylesford, and crossing the River Medway southwest of the town. By 7:00 in the evening Fairfax had secured the outer defenses and stood before Maidstone itself, intending to storm the town the following morning. The Earl of Norwich did not realize the significance of the attack until late afternoon.

During the evening, however, the Parliamentarian advance guard under Col. John Hewson became involved in heavy skirmishing with the defenders. As other units were drawn into the fighting, Fairfax decided to make a general assault. The Royalists resisted in a series of furious street battles in heavy rain, but their barricades were gradually overwhelmed and the defenders driven back through the town to make a stand at Gabriel’s Hill. Around 11:00, the Royalists broke and fled, leaving 300 men killed and 1000 taken prisoner. Parliamentarian casualties were about 80 men.

Royalist prisoners were initially held captive in All Saints Church. Having acquitted themselves well in a bloody defense against a professional attack, 1300 Royalists were allowed by Fairfax to return to their homes after the surrender.

The Earl of Norwich took no part in the battle, probably because the bulk of his untrained, poorly-equipped army had no heart for the fight. He escaped towards London with about 3000 men. On reaching Blackheath on June 3 he found the gates of London barred against him and the city resolutely defended by Skippon and the Trained Bands. With Col. Edward Whalley in hot pursuit, most of Norwich’s followers deserted. On June 4, he crossed the Thames with 500 loyal supporters and hurried to join Sir Charles Lucas and the Essex Royalists at Chelmsford.

Fairfax sent a detachment under Col. Rich to recapture Dover Castle and the forts at Deal, Walmer and Sandown then set off in pursuit of the Earl of Norwich with his main force. Rich spent 3 months in reducing the Kentish castles: Dover surrendered on June 6, Walmer on July 12, Deal on August 25 and Sandown on September 5.

[Ennath]

215 BC
1st Macedonian War

Rome's preoccupation with its war against Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of Macedon to attempt to extend his power westward. Involved in a war with the Aetolians, Philip learned by messenger of the victory of Hannibal at Lake Trasimene in June 217 BC (see posting). He at once began negotiations with the Aetolians. At a conference on the coast near Naupactus, Philip met the Aetolian leaders and a peace treaty was concluded.After building a fleet of light vessels over 100 strong to capture Appolonia on the Adriatic coast. Philip set sail in 216 BC, but erroneous reports of a large Roman fleet approaching casued him to turn back.

After hearing of Rome's disastrous defeat at Cannae in 216 BC (see posting), Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal’s camp in Italy. There they concluded a treaty in the summer of 215 BC. They pledged, in general terms, mutual support and defense and to be enemies to each other's enemies (excepting current allies). On their way back to Macedon, Philip’s emissaries, along with emissaries from Hannibal, were captured by Publius Valerius Flaccus, commander of the Roman fleet patrolling the southern Apulian coast. A letter from Hannibal to Philip, and the terms of their agreement, were discovered. The muted Roman response is often seen as a sign of how little they were worried by the alliance, but in the aftermath of the disaster at Cannae it may have been all the Republic could manage.

In the spring of 214 BC Philip made a second attempt to capture Apollonia from the sea. He took Oricum and reached the city and began a siege, but the Romans were quick to respond. Marcus Valerius Laevinus quickly recaptured Oricum and threw reinforcements into Apollonia. The Romans and Apollonians then launched a successful attack on Philip’s camp. Philip was forced to burn his boats and retreat across the Pindus Mountains into Macedonia. In the autumn of 214 Philip sent Demetrius of Pharos to attack Messene, in the Peloponnese, which was in revolt against Philip’s Achaean allies. The attack failed, and Demetrius was probably killed. In revenge Philip ravaged the territory of Messene. The factions within the city were united against Philip, left the Greek League, and moved closer to the Aetolians. The Achaean League was further weakened in the following year by the death of Aratus, its capable leader.

In 213 Philip made an overland attack on Illyria. This was far more successful than either of his naval expeditions had been. Although Apollonia and Dyrrhachium were too strongly garrisoned for him to attack, he was able to subdue the Atintanes and Parthini tribes and capture Dimallum and the fortress of Lissus, driving a wedge between the Romans at Oricum and their ally Scerdilaidas. He also gained a foothold on the Adriatic coast, but the Carthaginians would never take advantage of this.

By 212 BC the situation on the Illyrian coast was so serious that the Romans finally began to look for a Greek ally. The only useful ally available was the Aetolian League (based on the northern side of the Corinthian Gulf). The leading figures in the league were Dorimachus and Scopas of Trichonium, and they were both hostile to Philip. Laevinus visited Aetolia with his fleet, the first time that a Roman war fleet had visited Greek harbors. He met with the assembly of Aetolia, and agreed a treaty of alliance. The Romans agreed to provide 25 quinqueremes, while the Aetolians provided the majority of the soldiers.

The first target of the new allies was Acarnania, an ally of Philip’s on the coast west of the Aetolian heartland. In the autumn of 212 Philip was campaigning on the northern borders of Macedon against he Dardanians and Thracians. Encouraged by his absence the Aetolians invaded Acarnania. The Acarnanians swore an oath to conquer or die, sent their women and children to safety in Epirus, and held off the Aetolians until Philip was able to return. The Romans were more successful. Laevinus used his fleet to capture Oeniadae and Nasus from the Acarnanians and all of Zacynthus apart from the acropolis from Philip. All 3 cities were then handed to the Aetolians.

The main event of 211 was the capture of Anticyra by Laevinus and the Aetolian general Scopas. In accord with their alliance the Romans enslaved the population, while the town was handed over the Aetolians, who soon lost it to Philip. Late in the summer Laevinus was replaced by the proconsul Publius Sulpicius Galba, who would command the Roman fleet for most of the rest of the war.

The campaign of 210 saw Philip take the initiative, attempting to expel the Aetolians from Thessaly, to give him access to central Greece. The main event was the siege of the coastal city of Echinus. Dorimachus and Sulpicius attempted to raise the siege, without success, and the city fell to Philip. The only Roman success of this first expedition into the Aegean was the capture of the island of Aegina. The island was then handed over the Aetolians, but they had no fleet, and so sold the island to Attalus of Pergamum. This finally brought Attalus’ fleet into the war. In response Philip made an alliance with Prusias of Bithynia, who promised to bring his own fleet into the Aegean. 210 also saw Sparta join the war on the side of Rome and the Aetolians. The entry of Sparta into the war greatly complicated Philip’s tasks, for his allies in Achaea were now under attack from 3 sides.

In 209 the Achaeans were under pressure from Sparta and the Aetolians. Philip responded with a successful campaign in the Peloponnese, inflicting 2 defeats on an Aetolian army operating with the support of Roman and Pergamene auxiliaries. These defeats came at the same time as a group of peace envoys from Rhodes, Chios and Egypt arrived, in the first attempt to end the war (alongside the Athenians). Their defeats temporarily convinced the Aetolians to seek peace. An armistice was agreed, and negotiations began, but broke down when both Sulpicius and Attalus arrived with reinforcements. Philip resumed his campaign in Achaea, inflicting a defeat on the Romans at Sicyon. An attempt to capture Elis failed, and then Philip was forced to return to Macedonia to deal with a Dardanian invasion.

At the start of the campaign of 208 Sulpicius, Attalus and their fleets were operating the Aegean, the Aetolians had fortified Thermopylae in an attempt to keep Philip in the north, and it was rumored that the Illyrians were planning to invade Macedon. In fact the events of the year demonstrated the limits of Roman power in Greece. They were reliant on the Aetolians in any campaign on land, and lacked the troops to take advantage of their command of the sea. The combined fleet made unsuccessful attacks on Lemnos, Peparethus and Chalcis. On land Philip was able to force his way through the pass of Thermopylae, and came close to capturing Attalus at Opus. This marked the end of Attalus’ involvement in the war in Greece, for Prusias of Bithynia finally entered the war, invading Pergamum. Attalus was forced to return home to defend his kingdom. Sulpicius retired to Aegina with the Roman fleet, leaving Philip free to campaign in Locris, where he captured Thronium, and in Phocis, where he captured and Tithronium and Drymaea. He was then forced back into the Peloponnese, to repel a Spartan attack on the Achaeans.

The final stage of the war saw the Romans withdraw from the Aegean. Sulpicius may have sacked Dyme, the most westerly of the Achaean cities, but after that the Romans concentrated on patrolling the Illyrian coast. From their point of the view the war had achieved its aim, keeping Philip away from the Adriatic while the danger from Hannibal was at its most extreme. It was also clear after 10 years that Carthage was not going help Philip. This left the Aetolians in a vulnerable position, made worse by an unexpected revival of Achaean strength. This was triggered by the appointment of Philopoemen of Megalopolis as commander of the Achaeans. He was an experienced mercenary captain, who returned to Achaea after 10 years on Crete. During 207, having captured Tegea, the Spartan Machanidas approached Mantinaea. In the battle that followed Philopoemen defeated the Spartan phalanx. Machanidas was killed in the battle. With no distraction in the south Philip was able to concentrate on defeating the Aetolians. He was able to drive them from Thessaley and recapture Zacynthos (Ionian Islands). He then invaded Aetolia from the north, sacking the Aetolian federal sanctuary at Thermum.

The defeats and the lack of Roman support convinced the Aetolians that it was time to make peace. In the autumn of 206, in violation of their alliance with Rome, the Aetolian League made peace with Philip. Most of the areas lost to Philip remained lost, including most of Phocia. The Aetolians also earned the hostility of Rome. The Romans made one more attempt to renew the war, sending the proconsul Publius Sempronius Tuditanus to Illyria in 205 at the head of 10,000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. This army was too small to face Philip alone, and was clearly meant to encourage the Aetolians to resume the war, but without success.

Both sides now had little reason to continue the war. It was becoming clear to Philip that Carthage was going to lose. If Philip was willing to make peace on good terms, then Rome had no need to continue to fighting. When the magistrates of the Epirote confederacy offered to organize negotiations, the Romans agreed. The resulting Peace of Phoenice, agreed in the autumn of 205, generally favored Philip, allowing him to keep control of the Atintanes, one of Rome’s allies conquered earlier in the war. The peace was ratified by the Roman Senate and People at the end of 205, while Sempronius was elected consul.

Rome and Philip both had reason to be satisfied with the outcome. Philip had expanded his influence in inland Illyria and in mainland Greece, while the Romans had prevented him from threatening the Illyrian coast or even Italy. The peace would be short-lived, and the 2nd Macedonian War would break out only 5 years later.

[Ennath]

June 2, 1676
Battle of Palermo

Spain held Sicily, united with the southern boot of Italy as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Unrest grew in the early 1670s in response to new tax demands to support the war effort against France. Riots occurred as early as 1672., and in July 1674 the city of Messina erupted into full-scale revolt. Crowds fired on Spanish troops and expelled the Spanish governor. When the rebels appealed to the French, a squadron carrying wheat arrived on September 27. After the departure of this squadron in October, Spanish forces blockaded the city, but the fact that Messina was a port allowed it to be supported from the sea.

While some believed that the French could conquer the entire island, Finance and Naval Minister Colbert insisted that there was insufficient money for such a grand venture, so King Louis XIV sent a modest force of 5 companies of infantry to aid the rebels. They arrived on January 1, 1675, only to find Spanish ships blockading the harbor. However, the small fleet, under Jean-Baptiste, Bailiff of Valbelle, forced its way through. The French now had a military presence in Sicily.

In February, the French expedition was reinforced when the Duke of Vivonne arrived with another 9 ships and 3000 troops. On February 11, 1675, the French confronted a Spanish fleet of 20 ships and 16 galleys off Messina. A sortie by Valbelle’s 6 ships, falling on the Spanish rear, decided the action.. The Spanish withdrew their ships to Naples, leaving the French masters of the waters around Messina. Louis dispatched additional galleys in June; galleys retained considerable utility in blockade operations in shallow waters and calm seas. But if French power had grown on the island, so had Spanish, with the arrival of several German regiments. Vivonne attacked the Spanish headquarters at Milazzo in June, but without success. The French did, however, take Augusta and Lentini.

As the months went on, life in Messina became more difficult, and tensions arose between the citizens and the French. Rumors that a Dutch fleet under Michael de Ruyter was on the way only made things worse. This fleet arrived at the end of 1675 at the Lipari Islands, blocking the northern approach to Messina. Adm. Abraham, Marquis Duquesne, sailing from Toulon, encountered de Ruyter on January 8, 1676, near the island of Stromboli. The French lost several fireships, but managed to reach Messina.

Duquesne, with 30 warships and 7 fireships, put out from Messina on April 19 and de Ruyter sailed to meet him with a Dutch-Spanish fleet of 29 warships and 9 galleys. The fleets collided on the 22nd at the Battle of Augusta. The combat was particularly furious and in the torrent of shot, de Ruyter’s legs were smashed. The French won the day, but the Spanish galleys managed to tow some crippled Dutch ships to safety at Palermo, where the great Dutch admiral died of his wounds on April 29. His death had a severe impact on Dutch morale. Command was assumed by Vice Adm. Jan den Haen, with the Spanish Don Diego de Ibarra in general command.

Louis decided to press his advantage and dispatched his galley fleet to Sicily to reinforce Vivonne. Duquesne remained in actual command, aided by Rear Adms. Anne-Hilarion de Tourville and Gabriel-Jean Gabaret. At the end of May the French sailed with 28 warships, 25 galleys and 9 fireships, appearing off Palermo on June 2. In harbor were 17 Dutch and 10 Spanish warships, along with 19 Spanish galleys and 4 fireships.

The Dutch were inclined to meet the French at sea, but they were disappointed greatly by the Spanish conduct in the previous battle. The Dutch and Spanish warships were deployed in a battle line order across the bay with the Spanish galleys in front of them to protect from fireships. Many Spanish ships were of older designs equipped with low caliber cannons and incomplete, untrained crews. The Dutch crews were very well trained, though also incomplete due to irrecoverable losses in the previous battles and a dysentery epidemic. The French plan was to engage the Spanish ships first, continue with the Dutch ships and coastal batteries until the bay got covered with smoke under cover of which the fireships would attack.

The Spanish ships couldn’t maintain the battle order for long. Many of them cut their spring cables and left the line without orders. 3 Spanish frigates were burnt due to a French fireship attack. 2 Spanish galleys were destroyed by artillery fire with Adm. Juan de Villaroel killed. When Spanish resistance on the right of the line collapsed, the French attacked the left and center consisting mostly of Dutch ships with all their force. The Spanish flagship, Nuestra Señora del Pilar (70), was attacked by 4 French fireships, caught fire and exploded with 200 sailors and Adms. Ibarra and Francisco de La Cerda, killed. The majority of Dutch losses could be attributed to another successful French fireship attack on Steenbergen (68) which collided with 2 other Dutch ships, Vrijheid (50) and Leiden (36), in a failed evasive maneuver. All 3 Dutch ships caught fire and exploded, though most of their crews escaped successfully. Rear Adm. Pieter van Middelandt was killed on board Steenbergen. The Dutch continued to resist though. Vice Adm. den Haen was killed by a cannonball while commanding his flagship, Gouda (76). With all Dutch and Spanish admirals killed, a flag officer of late de Ruyter, Captain Gerard Callenburgh of Eendracht (76), assumed general command. One of the Spanish coastal batteries exploded and the town caught fire. The Dutch and Spanish were in a dire position, though the French had now expended all their fireships and Vivonne ordered a return to Messina.

For the cost of 9 fireships and 200 casualties, the French had destroyed 9 enemy vessels. The Spanish lost 1700 men and the Dutch 280. The victory broke Spanish naval power in Sicilian waters and the Dutch withdrew from the area.

Despite the victories, Vivonne was unable to achieve much on land. Commanding only 6500 troops, he did manage to control much of the east coast, but supplies were limited and Vivonne had to borrow funds on his own credit to feed his army. When all was said and done, the French court regarded the Sicilian expedition as little more than a way to tie down Spanish troops. When the prospect arose that England might enter the war against France in 1678, the French withdrew from Messina in March of that year. As a parting act, they offered to take with them any Messinans who believed they would suffer from Spanish retribution, and 500 prominent families embarked for France. The great amphibious venture, and the only sustained naval triumph of Louis’ reign, was over.