The Military History Thread

[Ennath]

July 18, 1711
Battle of the Pruth

In 1709 Peter the Great destroyed Charles XII’s Swedish army at the Battle of Poltava. Charles and the remnants of his army fled into Ottoman territory and were allowed to settle at Bender in Bessarabia.

In January 1710 the Tartar Khan, Devlet Girey II raided into the Ukraine with over 70,000 Tartars supported by 10,000 pro-Swedish Cossacks, some Polish and Swedish troops. They formed two groups led by his sons Bahti and Mehmed who advanced either side of the Dneiper River. After early advances they were driven back into the Crimea by Russian and Cossack forces led by Galitzin.

Large Russian armies then invaded the Crimea. A Cossack army 20,000 strong led by Hetman Skoropadsky supported by seven Dragoon Regiments and some infantry constituted the main attack. Another large force led by Admiral Apraksin attacke from Kuban supported by the Kalmyk Khan Ayuka and his 20,000 men. However, the attack was delayed by the Tartar raids and the main attack ground to a halt. The Kuban invasion was more successful but ran out of steam when the Tartars were able to switch forces to contain them.

Meanwhile, Charles had not been forgotten. Peter demanded that the Ottomans hand Charles over and when they refused war became inevitable. It was declared by the Ottomans on November 21, 1710. Concurrently with these events, the Prince Dimitri Cantemir of Moldavia signed the Treaty of Lutsk (April 13, 1711), by which Moldavia pledged to support Russia against the Ottomans with troops and by allowing the Russian army to cross its territory and place garrisons in Moldavian fortresses.

In May 1711 the main Russian army supported by Cossacks advanced from the Ukraine into Moldavia. The Moldavians rose against their Ottoman overlords and joined the Russians with around 10,000 men at the Moldavian capital Jassy. However, the Russian advance led by Boris Sheremetev was slow and as a consequence the Wallachian ruler, Constantine Brancovo, failed to declare for the Russians and then joined the Ottomans as they advanced through his country.

Peter advanced the army in three divisions down the Pruth River whilst detaching a flying column to the Danube to encourage the Wallachians – unaware that they had not changed sides. Peter was also unaware that the Ottomans commanded by Grand Vizier Baltadji had mobilized a massive army (at least 100,000 men) supported by Tartars, Wallachians and the remnants of the Swedish army and their allies. They crossed the Danube and arrived at the Pruth. The advance guards clashed on July 7 at Faltcha as the Ottomans successfully bridged the river. At the same time the Russian rear guard was attacked by the Tartars.

The Russian advance guard fought a running battle with the Ottomans as they fell back onto the main Russian army. When Peter realized his situation the Russians began to withdraw and join up their divisions. They were attacked by the main Ottoman army and retreated to the river in a large square formation. The Russian line held, not least because of stiff resistance from the Moldavians, and by July 9, they had consolidated their position. Before the defenses could be finished, the Ottoman infantry led by Janissaries attacked. Again they were held off and the Ottomans regrouped for a siege. Some 300 Ottoman guns began to bombard the Russian camp. A strong sortie inflicted heavy casualties on the Ottomans but could not break through their lines.

As the Russo-Moldavian army moved along the Pruth, a portion of the Russian army under General Carl Ewald von Rönne moved towards Braila, a major port town located on the left bank of the Danube (in Wallachia) but administered directly by the Ottomans. The Russian army met with a portion of the Wallachian army commanded by Toma Cantacuzino, who disobeyed the orders of the Prince Constantin and joined the Russians. The two armies assaulted and conquered Braila after a two-day siege (July 13-14).

The main and decisive event of the conflict was the four-day Battle of the Pruth, at Stanilesti (started on July 18), an ill-prepared operation during which the joint Moldavian and Russian troops were surrounded.

Peter was now trapped between the Crimean Tartar army and the Ottomans and only saved from complete destruction by a treaty offered by the Grand Vizier. Charles XII arrived too late to stop the treaty. Whilst a bribe may have helped, the Grand Vizier was also concerned about his casualties and a possible intervention by the Austrians. Peter agreed to abandon the fortresses of Azov and Taganrog, the Black Sea fleet and to withdraw back to Russia.

Peter had had a narrow escape. The Moldavian leader, Dimitri Cantemir, managed to get away with the Russians and is to this day a national hero. No such luck for the Wallachian Prince who was arrested and executed in Constantinople in 1714. Charles XII made it back to Sweden but was killed in 1718. The Grand Vizier lost his post on his return to face the displeasure of the war party on the Sultan’s council.

[Ennath]

July 19, 1972
Defense of Mirbat

During the Dhofar Rebellion in Oman, supported by Communist guerrillas from South Yemen, the Sultan’s government was supported by Britain. The British Army sent elements of its Special Air Service both to train soldiers and engage against the Popular Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Arabian Gulf (PFLOAG, known as Adoo) guerrillas for the "hearts and minds" of the Omani people. By early 1972, the tide was turning against the guerrillas and the Adoo leaders decided that they would have to make a decisive strike against the Sultan’s forces to regain the initiative. It was deiced that the Adoo would attack the small coastal town of Mirbat and kill all the families of loyalists.

At dawn on July 19, 1972, a large rebel force of some 250 Adoo rebels attacked the garrison at the Port of Mirbat in the Dhofar province of southern Oman. At around 0500 hours the picket at the top of Jebel Ali, a small hill some 1000 yards to the north, was being manned by a section of Dhofar Gendarmerie (DG). Jebel Ali provided a coordinating feature that protected the town and surrounding coastal area. The Adoos attacked the post, killing the DG. The exchange of fire was heard in the BATT (British Army Training Team) House in Dhofar and the commander, Captain Mike Kealy, and his men observed the fire coming from Jebel Ali and the waves of men advancing towards Wali's Fort. The Adoo attacked the BATT house knowing that to be able to reach the Port of Mirbat they would first have to defeat the SAS guarding the approach to the town in Jebel Ali. There were nine SAS men present. There were also a small number of Omani Intelligence Service personnel, a small contingent of Pakistani soldiers and a member of British Military Intelligence. Initially some of the Pakistani soldiers were reluctant to join the defence of the fort because their roles with the BATT were largely administrative, but they obeyed orders from Kealy and the British Military Intelligence Corporal.

Kealy at first did not order his men to open fire because he thought it was the "Night Picket" coming back from night shift, which were a loyal group of the Omani Army positioned on the slopes to warn of Adoo movements. Realizing that the Night Picket must have been killed, Kealy ordered his men to open fire.

Captain Kealy ordered the 81mm mortar to fire in support of Jebel Ali while the rest of the SAS took up their positions behind the sand-bagged emplacements and awaited targets. As a safeguard, the signaller was ordered to establish communications with SAS Headquarters at Um al Quarif. The SAS Fijian soldier Sgt. Talaiasi Labalaba left the house and ran the 500 yards to the gun pit by Wali Fort where he manned an old World War II 25-pounder gun. The Omani policeman who was guarding the weapon had been seriously wounded. Labalaba managed to operate the weapon, which is a 6-man job, himself and fire a round a minute at the approaching Adoo, directing their attention away from BATT House. Kealy received a radio message from him reporting that a bullet had skimmed his face, and he was badly injured, and was struggling to operate the gun by himself. Kealy asked for a volunteer to run to Labalaba's aid. Trooper Sekonaia Takavesi volunteered to go. The machine guns provided supporting fire from the roof of BATT House as they watched Takavesi run the gauntlet of enemy fire, diving headlong into the gun-pit. He found Labalaba firing the big gun alone. He gave no indication that he was injured but indicated the need for help. Takavesi ran to the Fort's door and called for help. He was heard by an Omani gunner (Walid Khamis) and Takavesi grabbed him and both men raced back to the pit. As Takavesi cleared the sandbags the Omani gunner fell forward as a bullet hit him in the stomach.

Adoo continued to advance upon BATT House and the artillery emplacement. At one point, the Adoo were so close that Sekonaia and Talaiasi fired the weapon at point blank range, aiming down the barrel. Labalaba crawled across a small space to reach a 60mm mortar, but fell dead after being shot in the neck. Sekonaia, also shot through the shoulder and grazed by a bullet to the back of his head continued to fire at the approaching Adoo with his personal weapon. The squad signaller sent messages through to the main Forward Operating Base, to request air support and medical evacuation for the men in the gun emplacement.

Captain Kealy and Trooper Tobin made a run to the artillery piece. Upon reaching it, they dived in to avoid increasingly intense gunfire from the Adoo. Sekonaia continued to fire, propped up against sand bags after being shot through the stomach (the bullet narrowly missing his spine). The Adoo threw several hand grenades, but only one detonated, exploding behind the emplacement with no one injured. During the battle, Trooper Tobin attempted to reach over the body of Labalaba. In so doing, Tobin was mortally wounded when a bullet struck his face. By this time, BAC Strikemaster light-attack jets of the Sultan of Oman's Air Force had arrived, and began strafing the Adoo. With a low cloud base making for low altitude attack runs, only machine-guns and light rockets were used. Reinforcements arrived from G Squadron and the PFLOAG withdrew at about 1230. All wounded SAS soldiers were evacuated, and given medical treatment, Trooper Tobin eventually died in hospital not due to the multiple gunshot wounds but to an infection in his lung caused by his splintered tooth which he had aspirated when his bottom jaw was blown off by an AK-47 round.

The battle was underreported, and many considered the SAS team deserving of more awards for gallantry than received. However, many in Oman at that time perceived a desire by the British Government to downplay direct involvement of British service personnel in military action.

[rustler]

Great post Ennath!


As you say, Mirbat had been very under reported.


There are several reference works that discuss the battle, and some of them have put forward the idea that Sgt. Labalaba should have been awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for his gallant actions that day. However, being Special Air Service, that was never likely to happen, deserved or not. At that time, outside of the military, not many people even knew of the Regiments existence. And a lot of people wanted to keep it that way!

[Ennath]

Sorry I missed a day - internet connectivity problem.

July 20, 1402
Battle of Angora

By 1402 Sultan Bayezid and Tamerlane (or Timur the Lame) had both established a fearsome reputation as conquerors. Tamerlane had created a large empire in Transoxiana and Persia, while Bayezid had expanded the Ottoman Empire in Europe and in Anatolia, and had won a famous victory over a European crusading army at Nicopolis. It was perhaps inevitable that the two men would end up fighting each other, each seeing the other as a threat to their flanks. Both courts contained refugees from the other's conquests - Bayezid had sheltered Sultan Ahmad Jalayir, the former ruler of Baghdad, while many of the Anatolian princes defeated by Bayezid were with Tamerlane.

Tamerlane had conquered Georgia and Azerbaijan in 1390 and Syria in 1399-1400 after defeating the Mamluks, expanding his empire to the borders of the Ottoman Empire. Bayezid demanded tribute from one of the Anatolian Beyliks who had pledged loyalty to Tamerlane and threatened to invade. Tamerlane interpreted this action as an insult to himself and in 1400 sacked the Ottoman city of Sebaste (modern Sivas). In 1402, the Ottomans campaigned against Hungary. Tamerlane saw this as the right moment to attack and destroy the Ottoman empire. Beyazid was stung into furious action and when Tamerlane invaded Anatolia from the east, hurried back from Europe in order to confront fast moving Timurids somewhere in the west of Turkey. Tamerlane took a u-turn moving fast through Anatolia, slaughtering Ottoman conscripts, taking away horses and destroying Ottoman towns in his path.

As the Ottoman army approached Angora (Ankara), Tamerlane moved west, reaching Sivas. Bayezid's advisors suggested that he should stop at Ankara, where there was a good water supply, and wait for Tamerlane to come to him, but Bayezid rejected this advice and continued to advance east. Meanwhile, , Tamerlane left Sivas and marched south-west along the Kizilirmak River. Six days of forced marches brought him to Kayseri, where he rested for four days before moving on to Kirsehir. From there he advanced north-west, reaching Bayezid's old camp at Ankara. Tamerlane was now between Bayezid and the heart of the Ottoman Empire.

While Tamerlane settled down to besiege Ankara, Bayezid realized that he was in trouble and began a series of forced marched back west towards Ankara. When the Ottomans reached the city they found that Tamerlane had spoiled the only water supply available to them, and was arrayed for battle.

The exact size of the conflicting armies is not known. Before the main battle and during the battle, a number of Bayezid's allies and vassals joined Tamerlane. The Ottomans had perhaps 80-85,000 men, including almost 10,000 vassal Serbs, opposed to up to 130-140,000 men in the Timurid army.

The Ottoman force was drawn up with Bayezid and his elite Janissary infantry in the centre, and the Serbs under his brother-in-law Stephen Lazarevic on the right. Much of the Ottoman cavalry was supplied by the Anatolian contingents. Tamerlane's force was largely made up of cavalry, with some Indian elephants in the centre. His army contained a number of the Anatolian leaders whose men were now fighting for Bayezid.

At first the fighting was even. The battle began with a large-scale attack from the Ottomans, countered by swarms of arrows from the Timurid horse archers. The Janissaries were able to hold their own in the centre, while the Serbs pushed back Tamerlane's left. Serbian Prince Stefan and his vlastela (knights), together with Wallachian forces, cut through the Timurid ranks three times. Each time Stefan advised Bayezid to break out with him but Bayezid repeatedly declined to do so. During the battle the main water supply of both armies, Cubuk creek, was diverted to an off-stream reservoir near the town of Cubuk by Tamerlane, which left the Ottoman army with no water.

The deciding moment came when Bayezid's Anatolian troops began to leave the field or even change sides. Under attack from both side most of the Ottoman army fled the field. The Serbs held on for a little longer before they were forced to retreat, leaving Bayezid and the Janissaries to stand alone. Even then they were able to hold on until nightfall, when the last 300 men attempted to escape. Bayezid managed to escape to the nearby mountains with a few hundred horsemen. However, Tamerlane had the mountains surrounded and soon captured him. The battle had been bloddy, both sides losing perhaps 20,000 killed, wounded or missing.

In the aftermath of the battle Tamerlane was not quite his usual ruthless self, and many of the Ottoman survivors were able to escape across the Sea of Marmara to the empire's European provinces (Bayezid's son Suleiman escaped on a Genoese ships, while others were helped across the water by the Byzantines!). Tamerlane was furious at the Italian sailors who rescued the Ottoman, but with no ships, he was in no position to do anything to stop it. Instead, he advanced across Anatolia, storming the Knights of St. John-Cypriot stronghold at Smyrna towards the end of the year. Manuel II, the Byzantine Emperor, offered his submission to Tamerlane, as did Suleiman. Bayezid himself was kept prisoner, and accompanied Tamerlane's court until his death on March 8, 1403.

The battle of Angora was a crushing blow for the Ottoman Empire, but it recovered with surprising speed. None of the Ottomans’ local rivals were able to take advantage of Tamerlane's brief eruption into Anatolia, and only fifty years later the Ottomans finally conquered Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire. Tamerlane himself only survived for another four years, dying in 1405 on his way to invade China. His empire began to break apart.

[Ennath]

July 21, 1936
Siege of the Alcazar de Toledo

On July 17, 1936, rebel forces began the Spanish Civil War with a rebellion in Spanish Morocco. On July 18, the military governor of the province of Toledo, Colonel Jose Moscardo, ordered the Civil Guard of the province to the city. During July 19 and 20, various attempts were made by the War Ministry of the Republican government to obtain the munitions in the arms factory at Toledo. Each time, Colonel Moscardo refused and was threatened that a force from Madrid would be sent against him.

A proclamation declaring a "State of War" was read by a Captain of the Military Academy at 7 AM on July 21 in the Zocodover, the main plaza of Toledo. Euphemistic orders were given for "the arrest of well-known left-wing activists" in Toledo, but only the leader of the local prison was arrested.

The Republican troops sent from Madrid first arrived at the Hospital of Tavera on the outskirts of Toledo, but redirected their attack towards the Arms Factory upon receiving heavy fire from the hospital. A detachment of 200 Guardia Civil was stationed at the Arms Factory and negotiations ensued. During these talks, the Guardia Civil loaded trucks with ammunition from the factory and sent it to the Alcazar before evacuating and destroying the factory.

The Alcazar de Toledo is a stone fortification located in the highest part of the city. Once used as a Roman palace in the 3rd century, it was restored under Charles I of Spain in the 1540s, but was abandoned by Philip II and was convernted in the 18th century into a military academy. The Nationalists saw the Alcazar as a representation of the strength of Spain. Losing it to the Republicans would have been a serious blow to the Nationalists' morale.

Those that participated in the Nationalist uprising were the 800 men of the Guardia Civil, 6 cadets of the Military Academy (though propaganda gave them a great relevance), 100 Army officials and 200 armed civilians from right-wing political parties. The only weapons that they possessed were rifles, a few old machine guns and some grenades, but the officials and Guardia Civil had managed to bring in abundant ammunition. Approximately 670 civilians lived in the Alcázar during the siege. Many of these were the family members of the Guardia Civil while others had fled from the advancing Republican militias. The women were given no role in the defense; they were not even allowed to cook or nurse the wounded. However, their presence provided the men with the moral courage to continue the defense. The civilians were kept safe from Republican attacks, the five civilians that died were due to natural causes. Additionally, ten prisoners captured during sorties and about 100-200 hostages held by the Nationalists throughout the siege. Among the hostages were the Civil Governor of the province and his family.

The Republican forces dispatched to Toledo consisted of approximately 8000 men of the militias of the FAI (Anarchists), CNT (rival Anarchists) and the UGT (Socialists). They had several pieces of artillery, a few armored cars and 2 or 3 old tanks. The Republican Air Force performed reconnaissance, spotted for the artillery and bombed the Alcazar on 35 occasions.

By July 22, the Republicans controlled most of Toledo and tried to bring about the surrender of the Alcazar by artillery bombardment. For the duration of the siege, the Nationalists engaged in a passive defense, only returning fire when an attack was imminent, though occasional sorites were made.

Colonel Moscardo was called on the telephone by the chief of the Worker's Militia, Commissar Candido Cabello, on the morning of July 23 and told that if the Alcazar were not surrendered within ten minutes, Moscardo's 16-year-old son, Luis, who had been captured earlier in the day, would be executed. Colonel Moscardo asked to speak to his son and his son asked what he should do. “Commend your soul to God," he told his son, "and die like a patriot, shouting,‘Viva Cristo Rey!' and ‘The Alcázar does not surrender.” Although a legend has grown up that Luis was immediately shot, he was not in fact shot until a month later "in reprisal for an air raid".

On August 14, the Republicans changed tactics after they felt the defences on the northern side of the Alcazar had been sufficiently reduced. Over the next five weeks, the Republicans attacked the House of the Military Government on eleven occasions, but were turned back each time. Had the Republicans captured the position, it would have enabled them to mass a large number of troops only 40 yards away from the Alcazar proper.

An envoy from the Republicans, Major Rojo, was sent to Colonel Moscardo on September 9 to again ask for the surrender of the garrison. This was refused, but Colonel Moscardo requested that a priest be sent to baptize the two children born during the siege and to also say Mass. Vázquez Camarassa, a Madrid preacher with left-wing views, was sent to the Alcazar during the morning of September 11, performed the necessary functions and issued a General Absolution to the defenders. That evening, Major Rojo met with Colonel Moscardo for the release of the women and children. The women unanimously replied that they would never surrender and if need be would take up arms.

From August 16 the Republicans had been digging two mines towards the southwest tower of the Alcazar. On the morning of September 18, the mines were detonated by Francisco Largo Caballero, the Republic’s premier,, completely destroying the southwest tower and the two defenders in it. Approximately 10 minutes later, the Republicans launched four attacks with the aid of armored cars and tanks. These failed after a determined defense, but the Republicans responded with a continuous bombardment of the Alcazar by artillery throughout the night and into the next day.

The bombardment of the outlying buildings had been so great that communication with them and the Alcazar itself had become impossible. A withdrawal from these buildings was ordered and by the night of September 21, the garrison was left to defend what remained of the Alcazar. The Republicans attacked the outlying buildings on the morning of September 22, but progress was slow because they did not realize that the buildings had been abandoned.

At 5 AM on September 23, the Republicans assaulted the northern breaches and surprised the defenders by lobbing grenades and dynamite. The Nationalists were driven into the courtyard, but reserves arrived to drive back the attack. A fresh assault was mounted later in the morning; this time a tank led the charge. Wave after wave of Republicans attacked the breaches, but after 45 minutes the attack had ground to a halt and collapsed.

The first sign of a relieving Nationalist force was on August 22, when a plane sent by Franco dropped a trunk of food into the Alcazar along with a message to the defenders that the Army of Africa was on its way. By September 26, the Nationalist columns had reached the village of Bargas, four miles north of Toledo. The position of the Republicans grew desperate and on the morning of September 27 they made a final assault on the Alcazar. The attack was repulsed and shortly after the Nationalists moved down from Bargas to end the siege. Most of the Republican troops fell back in disorder on Aranjuez. The defenders had lost 65 men dead, 438 wounded and 22 missing. Republican losses are unknown.

Apart from the small arms factory, Toledo was a city of no military value to either side; the Nationalist forces there were isolated, badly equipped and in no condition to conduct offensive operations. Yet the Republicans —due to the increasingly symbolic value of the Alcazar as weeks went by— threw badly needed men and artillery (which could have been used to confront Franco's advance through western Spain) into the fortress’s capture. The Republican government believed that since the garrison was only 40 miles southwest of Madrid and would not be receiving any immediate help from other Nationalist forces that it would be an easy propaganda victory. The press was invited by the Republican government to witness the explosion of the mines and storming of the Alcazar on September 18, but it wasn't until September 29 that the press entered the Alcázar, this time by the invitation of the Nationalists, turning the whole thing into a huge propaganda victory for the Nationalists, undermining the Republican morale.

Franco's decision to relieve the defenders of the Alcazar was a controversial one. Many of his advisers thought that he should have kept up the advance towards Madrid because the besiegers of the Alcazar would have been recalled to Madrid for its defense. However, Franco believed that the propaganda value of the fortress was more important and ordered the Army of Africa to relieve it. Two days after the relief, Franco was proclaimed Generalissimo and in October was declared the head of state.

[Ennath]

July 22, 1812
Battle of Salamanca

Pushing into Spain in the spring of 1812, British, Portuguese, and Spanish troops under Viscount Wellington were confronted by French forces led by Marshal Auguste Marmont. Though his army was advancing, Wellington grew increasingly concerned as the size of Marmont's command steadily increased. When the French army matched and then became slightly larger than his, Wellington elected to halt the advance and began falling back towards Salamanca. Under pressure from King Joseph Bonaparte to take the offensive, Marmont began moving against Wellington's right. Wellington withdrew, with the armies often marching close together and Marmont repeatedly threatening Wellington's supply line. Crossing the River Tormes, southeast of Salamanca, on July 21, Wellington was resolved not to fight unless under favorable circumstances. Placing some of his troops on a ridge facing east towards the river, the British commander concealed the bulk of his army in the hills to the rear.

Early the next morning, Marmont spotted dust clouds behind the British position in the direction of Salamanca. Misinterpreting this as a sign that Wellington was retreating, Marmont devised a plan calling for the bulk of his army to move south and west to get behind the British on the ridge with the goal of cutting them off. In actuality, the dust cloud was caused by the departure of the British baggage train which had been sent towards Ciudad Rodrigo. Wellington's army remained in place with its 3rd and 5th Divisions en route from Salamanca. As the day progressed, Wellington shifted his troops into positions facing south, but still concealed from sight by a ridge. Marmont's 50,000-man Army of Portugal contained eight infantry and two cavalry divisions, plus 78 guns. Wellington's 48,500-man army included eight infantry divisions and two independent brigades, five cavalry brigades and 54 cannons.

Pushing forward, some of Marmont's men engaged the British on the ridge near the Chapel of Nostra Señora de la Peña, while the bulk began the flanking movement. Moving onto a L-shaped ridge, with its angle at a height known as the Greater Arapile, Marmont positioned the divisions of Generals Maximilien Foy and Claude Ferey on the short arm of the ridge, opposite the known British position, and ordered the divisions of Generals Jean Thomieres, Antoine Maucune, Antoine Brenier, and Bertrand Clausel to move along the long arm to get in the enemy's rear. Three additional divisions were placed near the Greater Arapile.

Marching along the ridge, the French troops were moving parallel to Wellington's hidden men. Around 2:00 PM, Wellington observed the French movement and saw that they were becoming strung out and had their flanks exposed. Rushing to the right of his line, Wellington met General Edward Pakenham's arriving 3rd Division. Instructing him and Brigadier General Benjamin d'Urban's Portuguese cavalry to strike at the head of the French column, Wellington rushed to his center and issued orders for his 4th and 5th Divisions to attack over the ridge with support from the 6th and 7th as well as two Portuguese brigades.

Intercepting Thomieres, the British attacked in two-deep line. Despite column formation, the French initially repulsed the attack, but were then charged and routed by a bayonet charge. Thomieres was killed.

Down the line, Mancune, seeing British cavalry on the field, formed his division into squares. Instead, his men were assaulted by Major General James Leith's 5th Division, whose musketry shattered the French lines. As Mancune's men fell back, they were attacked by Major General John Le Marchant's cavalry brigade and cut to pieces. Many of the survivors surrendered. The british cavalry pressed on to attack Brenier's division. While their initial assault was successful, Le Marchant was killed as they pressed their attack. William Ponsonby succeeded to command of the brigade.

During this crisis, the French army lost its commander. As Pakenham's 3rd Division prepared to attack Thomieres, Marmont finally woke up to his army's peril. He dashed for his horse, but was caught in a British shellburst which broke his arm and two ribs. His second-in-command, General Jean Bonnet, was wounded very soon afterwards. For somewhere between 20 minutes and an hour, the French Army of Portugal remained leaderless.

While the French command was reorganized, Major General Lowry Cole's 4th Division along with Portuguese troops attacked the French around the Greater Arapile. Taking command, Betrand Clausel attempted to retrieve the situation by ordering one division to reinforce the left, while his division and Bonnet's division, along with cavalry support, attacked Cole's exposed left flank. Slamming into the British, they drove Cole's men back and reached Wellington's 6th Division. Seeing the danger, Marshal William Beresford shifted the 5th Division and some Portuguese troops to aid in dealing with this threat.

Arriving on the scene, they were joined by the 1st and 7th Divisions which Wellington had moved to the 6th's aid. Combined, this force repelled the French assault, forcing the enemy to begin a general retreat. Ferey's division attempted to cover the withdrawal but was driven off by the 6th Division. Foy's division then covered the French retreat towards Alba de Tormes, where there was a bridge they could use to escape. Wellington, believing that the Alba de Tormes crossing was blocked by a Spanish battalion in a fortified castle, directed his pursuit along a different road. De Espana, however, had withdrawn the unit without informing Wellington, so the French got away.

The Army of Portugal suffered 7000 killed and wounded and 7000 captured. Besides Marmont's severe wounding, two divisional commanders were killed and another wounded. Half of the 5170 Anglo-Allied losses (3130 British and 2040 Portuguese) came from the 4th and 6th Divisions. Cotton, Cole, and Leith were wounded.

The following day, Wellington's King's German Legion (KGL) heavy dragoons performed the astounding feat of "breaking a square" and overrunning a portion of the French rearguard at the Battle of Garcia Hernandez. Moreover, they accomplished this twice within a few minutes.

Having destroyed his principal opposition in Spain, Wellington captured Madrid on August 6. Though forced to abandon the Spanish capital later in the year as new French forces moved against him, the victory convinced the British government to continue the war in Spain. Additionally, Salamanca dispelled Wellington's reputation that he only fought defensive battles from positions of strength and showed that he was a gifted offensive commander.

[Ennath]

July 23, 1759
Battle of Paltzig

At the end of April 1759, a large Russian army (about 70,000 men) started its advance on Brandenburg. Dohna, the commander of the small Prussian army (18,000) in this area, was very slow to react.

At the beginning of June, the Russian army, now under General Pyotr Semionovitch Saltykov, had managed to concentrate at Poznan without any interference from Dohna. Saltykov then invaded Brandenburg, starting his advance on Crossen. By July 17, the Russians had reached the area of Züllichau, a few miles from the Oder. Dohna failed to interpose his small army between the Russians and the bridge at Crossen. Frederick II, upset by Dohna's passivity, despatched Lieutenant-General Kurt Heinrich von Wedel to replace Dohna. Wedel reached his army in the evening of Saturday, July 22. He now had some 28,000 men. There some 47,000 Russian troops in the immediate vicinity.

At daybreak on July 23, Wedel set out to reconnoiter. The heavily wooded area prevented him from seeing very much, but he saw glimpses of stationary troops that he mistook for the Russian left wing while they were in fact the rearguard. This led him to think that the whole Russian army was still idle and that therefore he still had time to outmaneuver it. Indeed, the Russians were already on the move to march towards Crossen to eventually make a junction with an Austrian corps led by Hadik and Loudon. At 10:00 AM, Wedel returned to the Prussian camp reassured as to Russian intentions.

However, at 11:00, the heads of the Russian columns began to emerge from the woods in full view of the astonished Prussian left wing in front of the village of Paltzig about 5 miles from Züllichau. Wedel was immediately informed but did not believe the report and went personally to observe the Russian troops.

Wedel could not ignore the fact that the king had dismissed Dohna for being too cautious and so took a step that, under different circumstances, he probably would never have taken; he decided to attack the Russian army while it was on the march. Several of his commanders were aghast. Nevertheless, Wedel ordered his troops to march in 2 columns by the left: the first towards Kay and the second towards Mohsau. The ground separating the two armies was hiding quite a number of unpleasant surprises; first there was a little stream running from Kay to the Oder. The banks of this stream were marshy and it could not be forded. Men could only pass it by using a narrow road leading to a small bridge in the proximity of the mill of Kay. There was also a second brook, a branch of the first one and there was no bridge across it.

At 3:00 PM, the heads of the Prussian columns arrived near Kay. The cavalry of the Prussian left soon seized the passage occupied by Cossacks. The 5 battalions of the Prussian vanguard under Manteuffel immediately followed, driving the Cossacks back. The Prussian cavalry then debouched from the bridge, formed into squadrons and charged the Russian cavalry between Paltzig and Kay, pushing it back onto the Russian infantry. During this cavalry combat, the Prussian vanguard had also passed the defile and had formed on the plain. The Prussian cavalry reformed behind this line of infantry. The Prussian vanguard, then attacked the southern corner of the Russian position. The assault was delivered with such extraordinary energy that the Russians were soon driven back in confusion.

But now the overwhelming disparity in numbers and artillery made the difference. The Russians skilfully redeployed, shifting reserves from left to right and forming a new line in and around the village of Paltzig. Manteuffel was wounded and had to fall back with heavy losses. His place was soon taken by Hülsen's brigade, which advanced on the Russian lines while Prussian cavalry advanced on their left along the wood located between Paltzig and Glogsen to turn the Russian right and attack it in the rear. However, Hülsen's units attacked piecemeal. This left Saltykov enough time to mass 70 guns in the churchyard of Paltzig, covering his center. Despite all this, the Prussian infantry managed to advance up to Paltzig but it was received with grapeshot and forced to retire with heavy losses, the Russians making good use of the protection of the second stream.

Another charge was launched on the Russian positions by Kanitz with six battalions of the second line. However, the outnumbered Prussians were broken and forced to retire towards Kay. Around 4:00 PM, a third line of six battalions of the Prussian rearguard, under Wobersnow, advanced against the Russian positions. But now the fight had turned into a hopeless frontal attack with all the Russian guns firing at point blank. Without artillery support, the Prussians were cut to pieces. Wedel threw a last card and asked Schorlemmer and his four regiments of cuirassiers to deliver a cavalry attack aimed at the southern corner of the Russian line. Some Russian hussar regiments tried to interfere, but they were brushed aside. However, their attack had slowed the last Prussian charge which had come too late to change the final outcome of the battle.

At 8:00 PM, as the sun was setting down, Wedel finally realised that the battle was lost and gave the order to withdraw. He took advantage of the night to move behind the defile of Kay and assembled his columns at Mohsau.

The Prussians lost nearly 8000 men. Saltykov, who had lost 4800 men, failed to pursue. His aim was to reach the town of Crossen and its bridge on the Oder where he hoped to join forces with the Austrians. But neither Hadik nor Loudon were there waiting for him. Saltykov then marched his troops towards Frankfurt, some 45 miles further down the Oder, where they arrived on July 30.

The defeat was the start of a bad year for Frederick.

[Ennath]

July 24, 1411
Battle of Harlaw

The Earldom of Ross was a vast territory reaching from Skye to Ross. In 1370 Uilleam (William), Earl of Ross received a charter from King David II of Scotland, confirming his right to the title and directing that in the absence of male heirs, the entirety of the earldom, titles and lands would fall to "the elder daughter always" without division. Uilleam died in 1372 without a male heir, and the title passed to his daughter Euphemia. By her first husband Sir Walter Leslie, Euphemia had two children – Alexander Leslie and Mariota (anglicised as Margaret or Mary). After Walter's death, Euphemia married Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan (the "Wolf of Badenoch") in 1382, giving the Stewarts control of the earldom. In 1392 the marriage was annulled as Buchan had long been living with Mairead inghean Eachann with whom he had a number of children, including Alexander Stewart, Earl of Mar. Euphemia died in 1394 and her son Alexander Leslie inherited the title.

Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany had taken effective control of mainland Scotland towards the end of the reign of his father Robert II; his power increased during the reign (1390–1406) of his ineffective elder brother Robert III. Albany's daughter Isabel Stewart married Alexander Leslie before 1398 and their only child was a sickly daughter, also called Euphemia. Leslie died in 1402, whilst his daughter was still a minor. Albany gained wardship of Euphemia, which gave him control of Ross. After the capture by the English of Robert III's heir James and Robert's death soon afterwards in April 1406, Albany was confirmed as regent; Albany continued to govern Scotland until his death in September 1420. Meanwhile Donald (Domhnall), Lord of the Isles claimed the earldom of Ross through his marriage to Euphemia's aunt, Mariota, the oldest living female descendant of Uilleam. He also signed an alliance with Henry IV of England on September 16, 1405.

It took Donald time to ready his assault, but in 1411 he invaded Ross. He met no opposition until "a severe conflict" at Dingwall, seat of the Earls of Ross, where he fought Clan Mackay. Their leader Angus-Dow (Angus Dubh, Angus Duff) Mackay was captured and his brother Rory-Gald was killed along with "the greater part of his men"; Donald would later give Angus his daughter in marriage. Donald then captured Dingwall Castle.

Donald then assembled his army at Inverness and swept through Moray meeting little or no resistance. The Islemen and Highlanders committed "great excesses" in Strathbogie and the Garioch, which belonged to Alexander Stewart, Earl of Mar. Finally the army came to Bennachie, the last hill of the Grampians before the coastal plain between Inverurie and Aberdeen. Donald had often promised to burn Aberdeen, and he was now within 20 miles of the burgh. On July 23, 1411, he set up camp just north of Inverurie, on high ground northwest of the bridge over the River Urie.

The Earl of Mar had plenty of warning and had assembled a force from among the gentry of Buchan, Angus and the Kincardineshire. Mar gathered his troops at Inverurie and, on the morning of July 24, marched northwest to meet the invaders.

According to the Scotichronicon, the two armies joined battle on the eve of the feast of St James – Friday, July 24, 1411. The same source puts Donald's army at 10,000 islanders and men of Ross, although it was probably far less. Tradition has it that they faced a force numbering between 1000 and 2000 men, although it was probably several thousand, with significant numbers of knights.

On spotting the islanders, Mar organised his force into battle array, with the main army behind a small advance guard of men-at-arms under Sir James Scrymgeour (Constable of Dundee, the hereditary standard-bearer of Scotland) and Sir Alexander Ogilvie of Auchterhouse (Sheriff of Angus). He probably split the army into three, with the knights as a cavalry reserve and the infantry arranged in schiltrons, close-packed arrays of spearmen. There is no mention of significant numbers of archers. The islanders were arranged in the traditional wedge shape, with Hector MacLean commanding the right wing and the chief of Clan Mackintosh on the left. At first the clansmen launched themselves at Scrymgeour's men, but failed to make much impression on the armoured column and many were killed. However, every wave of islanders that was repulsed, was replaced by fresh men. Meanwhile Mar led his knights into the main body of Donald's army with similar results. The islanders brought down the knights' horses and then used their dirks to finish off the riders.

By nightfall, the ballads claim that 600 of Mar's men were dead, including Ogilvie and his son, Scrymgeour. Many families lost not just their chief but every male in their house; Lesley of Balquhain died with six of his sons. Donald lost 900 men, a much smaller proportion of his total force, but including his two seconds-in-command. Too feeble to retreat, Mar and his surviving men camped on the battlefield, expecting combat to resume in the morning. Come dawn they found that Donald had withdrawn during the night, retreating first to Ross and then back to the Isles. The casualties on both sides meant that neither side felt it had won the day, but Mar had kept Donald from Aberdeen and for the islanders, the absence of conclusive victory was as bad as defeat.

Suspecting that Donald had merely fallen back to rest and reinforce his troops, Albany collected an army and marched on Dingwall in the autumn, seizing the castle and regaining control of Ross. In the summer of 1412, he followed up with a three-pronged attack on Donald's possessions, forcing Donald to surrender his claim on Ross, become a vassal of the Scottish crown and give up hostages against his future good behavior.

[Ennath]

July 25, 1722
Dummer’s War

When the War of the Spanish Succession ended in 1713, the colonial borders of northeastern North America were reshaped, but the treaty did not properly account for tribal claims. The area disputed by the European powers consisted of land between the Kennebec River (the eastern portion of Maine) and the Isthmus of Chignecto (all of the modern province of New Brunswick). This land was occupied by a number of Algonquian-speaking tribes loosely allied in what is now known as the Wabanaki Confederacy, which also claimed sovereignty over most of this territory.

Joseph Dudley, governor of Massachusetts (which then included Maine), organized a major peace conference at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. In negotiations there, the Wabanakis objected to British assertions that the French had ceded the territory to Britain, and agreed to a confirmation of boundaries at the Kennebec River and the establishment of government-run trading posts in their territory. The Treaty of Portsmouth, ratified on July 13, 1713, however, included language asserting British sovereignty. Over the next year other Abenaki tribal leaders also signed the treaty, but no Mi'kmaq ever signed it or any other treaty until 1726.

Regardless, New England settlements expanded east of the Kennebec, including a fishing settlement at Canso, a sore point with the local Mi’kmaq. The French stirred the pot with support for the Wabanaki, building churches and missions in tribal territory. The Wabanaki also began raiding livestock. Canso was attacked by Mi'kmaq and French forces in 1720, further raising tensions. Further negotiations failed to calm the matter. Massachusetts objected in particular to the presence of the Jesuit Father Sebastian Rale at Norridgewock, demanding his removal.

Governor Shute sent a military expedition to capture Father Rale in January 1722. Under the command of Colonel Thomas Westbrook, the New Englanders were unsuccessful in capturing Father Rale, but they plundered the church and Rale's cabin. Found among the priest's possessions was his strongbox. In it was discovered a hidden compartment containing letters implicating Rale as an agent of the government of Canada, promising Indians enough ammunition to drive the English from their settlements. In response to the raid on Norridgewock, the Abenakis on June 13 raided Fort George, burning the homes of the village and taking 60 prisoners, most of whom were later released.

On July 15, 1722, 500-600 natives from Penobscot laid siege to Fort St. George for twelve days. They burned a saw-mill, a large sloop, and sundry houses, and killed many cattle. Five New Englanders were killed and seven were taken prisoner, while the New Englanders killed twenty Maliseet and Penobscot warriors. In July 1722 the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq blockaded Annapolis Royal with the intent of starving the Nova Scotia capital. The natives captured 18 fishing vessels and prisoners in raids from Cape Sable Island to Canso. They also seized prisoners and vessels working in the Bay of Fundy. On July 25, 1722, Governor Shute formally declared war on the Wabanakis, Lieutenant Governor William Dummer would end up conducting the Massachusetts involvement in the war, since Shute somewhat abruptly sailed for England at the end of 1722 to deal with ongoing disputes he had with the Massachusetts colonial assembly.

On September 10, 1722, in conjunction with Father Rale at Norridgewock, 400 or 500 St. Francis and Mi'kmaq Indians fell upon Arrowsic, Maine. The Indians killed fifty head of cattle and set fire to twenty-six houses outside the fort. An assault on the fort itself failed. That night Col. Walton and Capt. Harman arrived with 30 men, to which were joined about 40 men from the fort. The combined force attacked the natives but were overwhelmed. The New Englanders then retreated back into the fort. Viewing further attacks on the fort as useless, the Indians eventually retired up the river. During their return to Norridgewock the natives attacked Fort Richmond. Houses were burned and cattle slain, but the fort held. Brunswick and other settlements near the mouth of the Kennebec were destroyed.

On March 9, 1723, Colonel Thomas Westbrook led 230 men to the Penobscot River and traveled approximately 32 miles upstream to the Penobscot Village. The village was vacant of people, and the soldiers burned it to the ground. Throughout the rest of 1723 Father Rale and the Wabanaki Confederacy orchestrated a total of 14 raids on the English settlements, primarily in present-day Maine. The campaign started in April and lasted until December. Thirty people were killed or taken captive. The campaign was so successful along the Maine frontier that Dummer ordered its evacuation to the blockhouses in the spring of 1724.

During this campaign, assisted by the Mi'kmaq from Cape Sable Island, the natives also engaged in a naval campaign. In just a few weeks they had captured 22 vessels, killing 22 New Englanders and taking more prisoner. They also made an unsuccessful siege of St. George's Fort.

In the second half of 1724, the New Englanders launched an aggressive campaign up the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers. Never before had the New Englanders been so successful in penetrating Abenaki lands. On August 22, Captains Jeremiah Moulton and Johnson Harmon led 200 rangers to Norridgewock, to kill Father Rale and destroy the settlement. There were 160 Abenaki, many of whom chose to flee rather than fight. At least 31 chose to fight, which allowed the others to escape. Most of the defenders were killed. Rale was killed in the opening moments of the battle, a leading chief was killed, and the rangers killed nearly two dozen civilians. The English had casualties of two militiamen and one Mohawk. Harmon destroyed the Abenaki farms, and those who had escaped were forced to abandon their village and moved northward.

The success of the Norridgewock raid prompted wider interest among New Englanders for raiding expeditions. Captain John Lovewell made three expeditions against the natives. On the first expedition in December of 1724, Lovewell and his militia company (often called "snowshoe men") of 30 men left Dunstable, New Hampshire, trekking into the White Mountains. In February 1725, Lovewell made a second expedition to the Lake Winnipesaukee area. Lovewell's third expedition consisted of 46 men and left from Dunstable on April 16. They built a fort at Ossipee and left 10 mento garrison the fort while the rest left to raid the Pequawket tribe at present-day Fryeburg, Maine.

On May 9, as the militiamen were being led in prayer by chaplain Jonathan Frye, a lone Abenaki warrior was spotted. Lovewell and his men closed in, leaving their packs behind in a clearing. Shortly after they left their packs were discovered by a Pequawket war party led by Chief Paugus, who, anticipating their eventual return, set up an ambush. Lovewell and his men, when they caught up with the lone warrior, exchanged gunfire. Lovewell and one of his men were wounded and the Indian was killed. When Lovewell's force returned to its packs, the ambush was sprung. Lovewell and eight of his men were killed, and two wounded. The survivors managed to retreat to a strong position, and fended off repeated attacks until the Pequawkets withdrew around sunset. Only 20 of the militiamen survived the battle; three died on the return journey. The Pequawket losses included Chief Paugus.

Meanwhile, in Nova Scotia, in response to the blockade of Annapolis Royal, New England launched a campaign to end the blockade at the end of July 1722, and retrieved over 86 prisoners taken by the natives. One of these operations resulted in the Battle at Winnepang in which 35 natives and 5 New Englanders were killed. In 1723, the village of Canso was raided again by the Mi'kmaq, who killed 5 fishermen. In this same year, the New Englanders built a twelve-gun blockhouse to guard the village and fishery. The worst moment of the war for Annapolis Royal came on July 4, 1724 when a group of 60 Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided the capital. They killed and scalped a sergeant and a private, wounded 4 more soldiers, and terrorized the village. The British responded by executing one of the Mi'kmaq hostages on the same spot the sergeant was killed. They also burned three Acadian houses in retaliation. As a result of the raid, three blockhouses were built to protect the town. The Acadian church was moved closer to the fort so that it could be more easily monitored. In 1725, 60 Abenakis and Mi'kmaq launched another attack on Canso, destroying 2 houses and killing 6 people.

Following the raid on Norridgewock, Penobscot tribal chiefs communicated to Dummer their willingness to open peace talks. They were opposed in this by French authorities, who continued to encourage the conflict. Following negotiations, Governor Dummer announced a cessation of hostilities on July 31, 1725. The British refused to budge on land titles, but allowed the Natives to retain Jesuit priests.

As a result of the war, the native population on the Kennebec and Penobscot Rivers declined and western Maine came more strongly under British control. In present-day New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Dummer's Treaty marked a significant shift in British relations with the Mi'kmaq and Maliseet. For the first time a European power formally acknowledged that its dominion over Nova Scotia would have to be negotiated with the region's indigenous inhabitants. The Mi'kmaq and Maliseet of Nova Scotia refused to declare themselves British subjects. The war was as much a native victory in Nova Scotia as it was a New England victory in Maine. Although the French lost their footholds in Maine, present-day New Brunswick would remain under French control for a number of years.

[Ennath]

July 26, 811
Battle of Verbitza

When Nicephorus I became Byzantine Emperor in 802, he planned to reincorporate Bulgar-held territory back into the empire. In 807 he launched a campaign but only reached Odrin and achieved nothing because of a conspiracy in his capital. That attempted attack, however, gave reason for the Bulgar Khan Krum to undertake operations against the Byzantine Empire. In 807 or 808 Krum seized the khanate of Bulgaria and united the Bulgarians of the Danube River valley with those living across the Carpathian Mountains in Pannonia and Transylvania—the only time such a union occurred in Bulgarian history. With his forces Krum completely annihilated the remnant of the Avars. In the fall of 808 Krum marched his troops across the Balkan Mountains to the mouth of the Strymon River, where a large Byzantine army was encamped. Krum took to the field when the snows melted and attacked Serdica (Sofia) in spring of 809, slaughtering the entire 6000-man Byzantine garrison.

Nicephorus personally led his troops against Krum to avenge Serdica. Reaching the Bulgarian capital of Pliska by Easter morning of 809, Nicephorus found the city virtually undefended. The Byzantines fell upon it without mercy. Nicephorus then marched on Serdica to rebuild the garrison there, but his troops mutinied and he was forced to abandon the project. Krum's forces, however, were not inhibited.

In 811, the Byzantine Emperor organised a large campaign to conquer Bulgaria once and for all. He gathered an enormous army from the Anatolian and European themata, and the imperial bodyguard (the tagmata); they were joined by a number of irregulars who expected a swift victory and plunder. The conquest was supposed to be easy, and most of the high-ranking officials and aristocrats accompanied him, including his son Stauracius and his brother-in-law Michael Rangabe. The whole army consisted of around 80,000 soldiers.

The army gathered in May, and by July 10 had set up camp at the fortress of Marcelae (present-day Karnobat) near the Bulgarian frontier. Nicephorus launched several feint attacks over the next ten days. Krum assessed the situation and estimated that he could not win and so offered peace, which Nicephorus haughtily rejected. Some of his military chiefs considered the invasion of Bulgaria to be imprudent and too risky, but Nicephorus was convinced of his ultimate success.

In June he marched through the Balkan passes towards Pliska. On July 20, Nicephorus divided the army into three columns, each marching by a different route. He met little resistance and after three days he reached the capital where the Byzantines met an army of 12,000 elite soldiers who guarded the stronghold. The Bulgarians were defeated and most of them perished. Another hastily assembled army met a similar fate. On July 23, the Byzantines quickly captured the defenseless capital. The city was sacked and the countryside destroyed. Khan Krum attempted once more to negotiate for peace. Nicephorus, confident from his success, ignored him. He believed that Bulgaria was all but conquered.

While Nicephorus and his army were busy plundering the Bulgarian capital, Krum mobilized his people (including women and Avar mercenaries) to set ambushes in the mountain passes. Initially Nicephorus intended to march through Moesia and reach Serdica before returning to Constantinople but the news of these preparations for a battle changed his decision and he chose the shortest way to his capital. The overconfident Emperor neglected to scout ahead. On July 25, his army entered the Pass of Verbitza but his cavalry informed him that the road was barred with thick wooden walls and that Krum's forces watched from the surrounding heights. The Emperor panicked. Before they could retreat, the Bulgars blocked the valley entrance too. The Byzantine army was trapped.

Nicephorus, unable to face attacking one of the palisades, simply set up camp, despite his generals' urgings. By the next night Byzantine morale was shattered, while Bulgar troops banged their shields and taunted them. That night the Bulgarians tightened the ring around the trapped enemy. The Byzantine force began to dissolve under harrassment from the heights. At dawn, the Bulgarians rushed down into the camp to complete the slaughter. The tagmata were the first to be attacked. These resisted for a short time and perished. Upon seeing their comrades' fate, the next units immediately ran.

On their way south the Byzantines hit a muddy river which was difficult to cross. As they could not find a ford quickly enough, many Byzantines fell into the river. The first stalled in the mud with their horses and were trampled by those who came next. The river was filled with so many dead that the chasing Bulgarians easily passed over them and continued the pursuit. Those who passed through the river reached the wooden wall which was high and thick. The Byzantines left their horses and began climbing the wall with hands and legs and hung over the other side. The Bulgarians had dug a deep moat from the inner side and when the Byzantine soldiers were getting across the ramparts, they fell from the high wall, breaking their limbs. Some died instantly, others hobbled some time before falling to the ground and dying from thirst and hunger. The Byzantine troops burned the wall at several places but as they were rushing to get across it, they too fell into the moat along with the burning parts of the palisade. Almost all of the army perished; some were killed by the enemy, others drowned in the river or were mortally injured after falling from the wall and some died in the fire.

Reportedly, only a few survived the defeat. The most notable person killed, however, was Emperor Nicephorus, who according to historians died on a dunghill on the day of the battle. Nicephorus's son, Stauracius, was carried to safety by the Imperial bodyguard after receiving a paralyzing wound to his neck. Six months later, his wounds finally killed him. According to tradition, Krum had the Emperor's head on a spike, then lined his skull with silver and used it as a drinking cup. The Empire was not through, however, and another invasion was readied. (But that’s another story.)