The Military History Thread

[Ennath]

May 22, 1940
Battle of Boulogne

When the German offensive in the west began, nobody on the Allied side thought that the channel ports were in any immediate danger. That all changed after the German breakthrough at Sedan on May 14, and the dash to the coast that followed. When Guderian’s Panzers reached the mouth of the Somme at Abbeville, German tanks were less than 40 miles south of Boulogne. The nearest strong Allied formations were 60 miles to the east, still trying to hold the line east of Lille and preparing for a counterattack, which it was hoped would break through the German lines and restore the situation (Battle of Arras, May 21, see posting).

Luckily for the Allies, the Germans had advanced much faster than they had believed possible, and Guderian’s tanks remained static throughout May 21, while the High Command decided whether to send them north to capture the channel ports, or south to attack the new French line forming on the Somme. The British used this time well. On the morning of May 22, 20th Guards Brigade (1 battalion each from the Irish and Welsh Guards, under William Fox-Pitt) was taken to Boulogne by sea, escorted by the destroyers Whitshed and Vimiera. This force was placed under the direct command of Gen. Edmund Ironside, Chief of the Imperial General Staff, partly because communications between the coast and Lord Gort, commander of the BEF, were now unreliable. The British found 2 battalions of French infantry in the town, under the command of Gen. Pierre Lanquetot, as well as a number of other troops who had been employed on labor duties behind the front and had found their way to the coast. Together the British and French had 8-9000 men in Boulogne, but the town had not been prepared for defense, and the troops lacked anti-tank weapons - the British had part of one AT battery, the French had a small number of tanks.

On the same day the Germans finally began to move north. 2nd Panzer Division was given the job of capturing Boulogne. During May 22, the Germans reached the southern part of Boulogne, where they encountered unexpectedly determined resistance by French 48th Regiment’s HQ company, which delayed them for 2 hours.

On May 23, the Germans began a much more determined attack. An hour after dawn, Ft. de la Crèche, north of Boulogne, was captured by German troops. The appearance of German armor at the northern perimeter confirmed to Fox-Pitt that there would be no reinforcements from Calais. Therefore, a force of 800 was hastily selected from those AMPC (Auxiliary Military Pioneer Corps) troops with previous military experience and rushed into the gap between the 2 Guards battalions, and a further 150 were sent to reinforce the Welsh Guards. Meanwhile, the AA gunners guarding the southern approach roads destroyed 2 German tanks with their 3.7” AA guns before retiring. By 10:00 AM, the determined German attack from the south had forced the Irish Guards back into the town.

The British had already begun to plan for a possible evacuation and that morning 200 seaman and marines were sent over on the destroyer Vimy, to organize the port. This was a particularly dangerous task, for German troops had reached within small arms range of the harbor area. The danger was clearly illustrated later in the day - the destroyers Keith and Whitshed were sent into the harbor, where Captain D. J. R. Simson of the Keith was killed and the captain of the Vimy mortally wounded.

Later that afternoon, the British finally decided to evacuate their troops from Boulogne. 3 more destroyers (Vimiera, Venomous and Venetia) were sent to take part in the operation, with Wild Swan following close behind. They arrived at Boulogne at 6:30 PM, just after a heavy German air raid that Gen. Walther Nehring, Guderian’s chief of staff, claimed disabled 3 destroyers. The new ships were met by HMS Whitshed outside the harbor. Her commander, E. R. Conder, was now the senior naval officer present. He sent a message to Adm. Ramsey, the overall commander of the evacuations, reporting that he would not risk entering the port without air support. 50 minutes later, with RAF fighters overhead the British flotilla began to enter the port.

Whitshed and Vimy went in first. They were each able to take on around 1000 men, before withdrawing at 8.20. They were then followed in by the Wild Swan, Venomous and Venetia. This last soon became the only British destroyer to be seriously damaged. Her captain was wounded and she was forced to back out of the port. All 3 ships became involved in a close range ship-to-shore battle, attacking German tanks with their quick firing guns, aiming over open sights at enemies only a few hundred yards away. The situation was made worse when the Germans captured the French coastal gun batteries largely intact, and turned them on the British ships. Despite this, at 9.30 the Wild Swan and Venomous left port with 900 men between them.

By this point 2900 men had been evacuated, but there were still 2200 British soldiers in Boulogne. At 10.30, an 8th destroyer, HMS Windsor reached the port, and was able to evacuate 600 men, amongst them many of the wounded and a naval demolition. Finally, in the early hours of May 24 Vimiera made the final trip into Boulogne. By now the fighting had died down for the night, and by 2.45 AM she had been able to take 1300 men on board. A total of 4360 men were rescued. Unfortunately a second destroyer, HMS Wessex, had failed to arrive, and so 300 Welsh Guards had to be left behind.

On the morning of May 24, the French garrison still held the old citadel, and was determined to fight on, protected by the 30 foot walls. In the evening, after concentrated artillery fire, the assault began. The attacks were repulsed and some German tanks were reported to have been destroyed. The French Navy continued its gunfire support but the destroyers Fougueux and Chacal were damaged by the Luftwaffe and Chacal was later sunk by German artillery. During the night, about 100 French soldiers tried to break out towards Dunkirk but failed. At dawn on May 25, the Germans assaulted the walls again using ladders, grenades and flamethrowers, supported by 88mm AA guns and at 8:30 AM, Lanquetot surrendered.

Major J. C. Windsor Lewis, officer commanding 4 Company, 2nd Welsh Guards, had taken charge of a large party of stragglers, who were awaiting rescue in the sheds at the quayside. Besides guardsmen from both battalions, there were 120 French infantry, 200 AMPC, 120 Royal Engineers and 150 civilian refugees; most of the Pioneers were unarmed. When the sheds came under fire, Windsor Lewis moved the group into the Gare Maritime (harbor railway station) and made sandbag barricades. On the evening of May 24, under fire from tanks and machine-guns, they fought off a German assault party that had approached the quay in a boat. Without food, running low on ammunition and realizing that there would be no further evacuation, the force surrendered at 1:00 PM on May 25.

The Germans captured 2 generals and 5000 Allied troops, most of them French. While not as famous as the defense of Calais, which was being conducted at almost the same time, the 3 day defense of Boulogne played a part in delaying the German advance towards Dunkirk, and gave the British and French time to consolidate their defensive positions there.

[Ennath]

May 23, 1480
Siege of Rhodes

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 opened the way for new expansion in eastern Europe. Meanwhile, the Knights of St. John, based on Rhodes, continued to be a thorn in the empire’s side, aiding Turkey’s enemies, even dealing with Muslim Persia. These put Rhodes high on the sultan’s list of military priorities. Former attempts to capture Rhodes had failed repeatedly. The Mamluks made attempts on Rhodes in 1440, 1444, 1457, and 1469. So far, the order had held against all challengers and kept their ascendancy at sea, bedeviling Muslim shipping with impunity. But by 1480, Sultan Mehmet II was prepared to finally make the order - those “sons of Error and allies of Shaiten”- pay for its crimes against the empire.

The crescent-shaped main harbor and the galley harbor were protected by shore batteries on the seaward wall of the city. At the end of a second and older mole at the southern end of the harbor was the fortress of St. Angelo, also known as the Tower of the Windmills because 3 had been erected alongside the mole to service grain ships. In all, some 30 fortified points were built or refurbished on the island, which was ringed by a system of watchtowers. Carrier pigeons and signal fires were used for early warnings to the order’s main keep, called the Convent. Rhodes had no less than 7 well-fortified gates. Grand Master Pierre D’Aubusson put in enough supplies for 2 years of siege, reinforced all the islands in the Rhodes chain, and sent out a call for former members to return along with new European volunteers. By the time of the siege, he had about 400 knights, 200 sergeants, and 3000 soldiers.

All day on May 23 Turkish ships moved out from the Asia Minor coast toward the northeast coast of Rhodes. At dusk they moved on Akra Milos at the northern tip of the island and sailed along the northwest coast, anchoring in the protected Bay of Trianda behind Mount St. Stephen, where Rhodian lookouts had been stationed for months. The next morning the Turks landed and moved around the north end of the island, heading for Rhodes city with an army of 70,000 men under the command of Misac Pasha.

Once the Turks had essentially ringed the city with batteries, the bombardment began. The invaders’ 1st objective was the Tower of St Nicholas, the key point in the defense of the 2 harbors. After several days, D’Aubusson wrote that the Turks had destroyed 9 towers and brought down his palace. The western wall of St. Nicholas soon collapsed, and D’Aubusson commanded knights and peasants alike to immediately help repair it. Here began a process that would be played out again and again throughout the siege. Night and day, the stones and mortar of the west wall were built back up, while the mole was reinforced with a rampart along its length.

When a Sicilian ship with a cargo of grain and 100 volunteers was able to enter the harbor, Misac became enraged and redoubled the bombardment of St. Nicholas. Before dawn on June 4, he launched an amphibious assault on the mole. This was immediately met with sharpened stakes placed by the defenders, and then by a hail of crossbow bolts, fire pots and grenades, backed by artillery on the walls. Few of the attackers escaped.

Misac was way behind schedule and growing anxious about taking the mole and St. Nicholas. He switched his attention to the older walls of the city and brought an 8-cannon battery into place to bring down the southern walls overseen by the Knights of England, Provence, and Italy. At the same time, he implemented diversionary bombardments at the north walls to keep the Knights busy. D’Aubusson set every able-bodied person to work night and day, building a secondary defensive line and ditch behind the walls. This involved tearing down houses, using timbers and dirt to build a line of palisades, digging trenches, and collecting a supply of masonry, wood, and earth to fill the breeches in the weakening walls.

Meanwhile, Misac kept up the pressure on St. Nicholas, knowing that D’Aubusson would not be able to spare reinforcements for both places at once. Beginning on June 13, 4 days of bombardment of St. Nicholas masked the building of a pontoon bridge from the main beach to the mole. On the 18th, under cover of darkness, Janissaries carrying ladders and grappling hooks mounted the bridge near the tower and began storming St. Nicholas. 30 Turkish galleys and supply ships landed Sipahis, Janissaries, and various irregular troops to attack the seaward end of the mole on either side below St. Nicholas. However, the knights held firm and repulsed several waves of attacks. The gunners eventually destroyed the pontoon bridge and the assault ended with nothing to show but 2500 dead.

Rhodes was still in grave danger. There were several attempts at desertion. Some Italian Knights urged evacuation when it was rumored that the sultan and 100,000 reinforcements were on the way. The Grand Master’s condemnation of such rumors was enough to put them to shame. There were, however, several prominent Ottoman deserters in Rhodes.

On July 27, the bombardment of the south walls stopped and the Ottomans prepared to launch another assault. During the night, Misac brought up most of his big guns and concentrated one last massive barrage on the Tower of Italy. Defenders were driven from the walls. The bombardment lasted until dawn on the 29th, then the Turkish commander unfurled a black flag, symbolizing that no quarter would be given. Misac ordered the making of thousands of wooden stakes - meant to impale the entire population above the age of 10. The irregulars led the assault; they were cannon fodder, whose bodies would fill in the ditches. The regulars followed and took the half-ruined tower. D’Aubusson personally led a counterattack. Although wounded in 5 places, he drove the Turks out in disorder. The knights pursued into the Ottoman camp, taking much booty. The Ottoman assault cost them 3-4000 men.

The Turks had had enough. They gathered more than 15,000 wounded and burned their dead comrades to stave off disease. The Order, which also burned its dead, had lost 230 Knights and many more brother sergeants, militia, and private citizens. The defenders watched the Turkish squadron abandon the harbor at Trianda late in the afternoon of August 7. As the invaders’ ships labored through a quickly developing storm, a well-armed carrack flying the flag of the king of Naples suddenly appeared on the horizon. The Turks, fearing that it was the long-rumored European armada sailing to rescue Rhodes, turned in desperation to fight. Pope Sixtus IV had sent his promised food and token reinforcements - enough to ice the victory. D’Aubusson, thought to be on his deathbed, would live to fight another day.

The fate of commanders who failed the sultan was usually summary execution, but Misac somehow avoided Sultan Mehmet’s wrath and was instead exiled to Egypt. The sultan had every intention of returning to Rhodes himself, but his attention was turned to more pressing military matters in Asia Minor. In April 1481 he died while on the march to Nicomedia. The chroniclers in Europe announced his death with unconcealed delight and crowed that the sultan had “descended into Hell.” The Ottoman Empire was left with a legacy of civil wars and royal rivalry that carried over well into the early 16th century.

[Ennath]

882
Siege of Asselt

Immediately after assuming the kingship of East Francia in Regensburg in early May 882, Charles the Fat, already emperor, held an assembly at Worms to determine a course of action against the Vikings who were encamped at Asselt.

The precise location of Asselt is somewhat disputed. The charters call it Ascloha and the Bavarian continuation of the Annales Fuldenses assigns the locale on the Meuse river, 14 miles from the Rhine. In the past, it was most often identified with Elsloo, north of Maastricht. These days, most scholars prefer a location near Roermond, which better fits the distance to the Rhine.

An army comprising Franks, Alemanni, Bavarii, Thuringii, Saxons, and Lombards was assembled to march north. The Lombards, Alemanni, and Franks approached up the Rhine on the west while the Bavarians went along the eastern bank and crossed over at Andernach. The emperor sent a force of Bavarians under Arnulf of Carinthia and Franks under Henry of Franconia ahead to ambush the unsuspecting Northmen.

According to the biased account of the Mainz continuation of the Annales Fuldenses, the Norse camp was about to fall when Liutward of Vercelli, bribed by the Vikings, convinced the emperor to meet envoys from the Norse leader, Godfrid, and make peace, even exchanging hostages. Godfrid was granted the Kennemerland as a vassal. Charles also agreed to pay a Danegeld to the Viking leader Sigifrid, partly using monies from churches. The Mainz chronicler portrayed the army as greatly displeased. The Bavarian account merely mentions that the initial ambush was thwarted by traitors and the subsequent siege - which lasted 12 days - by the spread of disease from rotting corpses and a very severe hailstorm. Godfrid, according to this account, swore oaths to Charles promising never to again lay waste his kingdom and accepted Christianity and baptism, at which Charles stood as his godfather. The Mainz continuation had a particularly poor opinion of Charles the Fat because its patron, Liutbert, had been dismissed from his court position with Charles' succession.

The campaign over, Charles returned to Koblenz and dispersed the army. His reputation as a weak and inept ruler stems largely from this campaign, though contemporaries did not in general see it as a failure. Only the Mainz cleric of Liutbert's, adding to the annals of Fulda had that impression.

[Ennath]

May 24, 1667
War of Devolution, Part 1

Upon the death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661, Louis XIV, who had nominally been king since 1643, began to rule France in his own right. Having been raised in a culture that expected young princes to seek "glory" on the battlefield, Louis was looking for an opportunity for war. In 1665, Louis believed that he had a pretext to go to war with Spain and allow him to claim the Spanish Netherlands. His claims were tenuous. In 1659, France and Spain had concluded the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which ended 24 years of war between the two states. Under the terms, Philip IV of Spain had to cede certain territories and also consent to the marriage of his daughter Maria Theresa to the young Louis. It was agreed that with this marriage, Maria Theresa explicitly renounced all rights to her father's inheritance. As compensation, a dowry of 500,000 gold écus was promised - but never paid. When Philip IV died on September 17, 1665, the French king immediately laid claim to parts of the Spanish Netherlands. He justified this with the fact that the promised dowry had not been paid, and that the French queen's renunciation of her Spanish inheritance was therefore invalid. Louis argued that his wife's prior claims to her father's estate properly "devolved" to her.

Maria Theresa's stepmother, Queen Mariana of Spain, who was taking care of government for her young son along with her confessor Cardinal Johann Neidhardt, rejected these claims, referring to Maria Theresa’s renunciation. At this, Louis began preparations for war. With his able finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis reorganized government finances to improve and expand the army from 50,000 to 80,000 men. Spain was fragmented and beset with serious economic problems. The discovery of gold in Spanish America and its importation into the Spanish economy had caused ruinous inflation.

The international situation was advantageous for France. Spain had already been involved in the Portuguese Restoration War for some years, which brought Spain a series of defeats and bound up a large portion of Spain's military potential (see posting, Spain Concedes Portuguese Independence). France had, since the 1560s, supported the Dutch in their war with Spain and both countries had entered into a defense alliance in 1662. Louis XIV was anxious to gain the support of the United Provinces for a conquest of the Spanish Netherlands and therefore entered into negotiations. The United Provinces were at this time at war with England, and in the States-General there were fears of a rapprochement between England and France if they did not take up the French offers. Although they did not agree to join the war against Spain, they did convince Louis of their sympathy. Louis promised that he would mediate the conflict with England and eventually declared war on England, although French naval involvement was limited. Imperial involvement was to be limited by bilateral treaties with several states of the Rhineland.

In spring 1667, a French force of 51,000 deployed between Mézières and the sea. The main army consisted of 35,000 men personally commanded by Louis with Marshal Turenne. To the left, a further French corps drew up on the coast at Artois, under Antoine d'Aumont de Rochebaron. A 3rd corps under François de Créquy, Marquis de Marines, was positioned on the right of the main army.

On May 24, 1667 French forces crossed the border into the Spanish Netherlands. The defenders were poorly prepared and could not expect reinforcement from the mother country in the foreseeable future. The forces in the Spanish Netherlands lacked central organization. Every large town had its own area of responsibility and went about the maintenance of its own defense arrangements. Their commanders were relatively independent and responsible only to the Statthalter Marquis of Castel-Rodrigo, who also commanded the few regular Spanish troops. Apart from this, he only had militias at his disposal, available in the utmost emergency. The small number of troops did not permit the establishment of a field army. Therefore, the few available forces were posted in the strongholds, to hold out as long as possible.

Turenne was given supreme command of the French forces. The first objective was the stronghold of Charleroi, which dominated the connection between the northern and southern Spanish possessions. Castel-Rodrigo did not have the means to hold it and abandoned the fortress, after destroying all the fortifications. Turenne had these reconstructed by Vauban. The French prepared to advance next against Mons or Namur. The Spanish strengthened these fortresses but Turenne bypassed Mons and took Ath on June 16 without contest, having surprised the defenders. The French extended the fortifications of this town as well.

Turenne's objective was now to cut off all of Flanders, along with the capital city of Lille, from the large Spanish bases at Bruges, Ghent, Brussels, and Namur. Tournai fell on June 25 after 4-day siege. Douai fell after a 6-day siege on July 7. Meanwhile, Rochebaron had advanced to take Bergues and Furnes. Turenne had now cut Flanders off from the sea, and now turned on Courtai, taking it on July 18. Oudenaarde fell on the 31st.

Turenne had isolated the most important Spanish fortresses of Ypres, Lille and Mons. However, instead of immediately besieging these locations, he decided to first move against Antwerp, to capitalize on the weakness of the Spanish forces. This move stalled between Ghent and Brussels. The small stronghold of Dendermonde, defended by 2500 Spanish, held out. Turenne therefore pulled back at the beginning of August via Oudenaarde and prepared to besiege Lille. This siege was the greatest undertaking of the entire campaign and lasted from August 10 to 28. The defenders were allowed to withdraw in exchange for capitulating. As Castel-Rodrigo had not yet been informed of the fall of the city, he sent an army of 12,000 under the Marquis de Marchin, to relieve Lille. On August 31 this army came upon the French corps Créquy, which Turenne had drawn up to cover the siege, who forced the Spanish to withdraw.

Turenne only undertook one further maneuver. On September 12 he conquered the stronghold of Aalst, breaking connections between Ghent and Brussels. After this, the French troops limited themselves to a loose blockade of Ypres and Mons, and on October 13 went into winter quarters. The quick success of the French in the campaign shocked the English and worried the Dutch.

In Spain, preparations to dispatch a force to Flanders had already begun in June. The government appointed Juan José de Austria as commander of the intended army. His reputation as a general was already tarnished after a number of defeats in the war against Portugal, and as he assessed the conditions in the Spanish Netherlands pessimistically, he delayed his departure on the pretext of the decision of a theological commission, which had declared itself against an alliance with the Protestant English and Dutch. In the end, further political complications meant that the Spanish army never arrived in Flanders.

During the winter, decisive shifts occurred in European politics. Spain entered into negotiations with the Portuguese and agreed the Peace of Lisbon. Spain would therefore be able to use all its armed forces against France from the coming spring. The Dutch were increasingly alarmed at French successes. France had become a formidable trading power and consequently a major competitor to the United Provinces. Though they remained enemies of Spain, the Dutch began to wonder if "a tired and inactive Spain promised to be a better neighbor than a powerful and aggressive France". The Dutch looked at the Spanish Netherlands as a buffer state. They hurriedly ended their war with England and offered to mediate the Franco-Spanish war. Louis rejected the offer in September and began to consider war with the Dutch.

On January 23, 1668, the United Provinces, England and Sweden concluded the Triple Alliance, whose declared aim was to bring about the Spanish cession of certain territories in the Spanish Netherlands and to persuade France to limit its claims. An added secret protocol, however, also provided that, if the French king extended his claims or were to continue his campaign of conquest, the alliance would use force to push France back to the borders of 1659. Louis bore a deep resentment against the Dutch, an ally, for joining the Triple Alliance. The Dutch had betrayed France, he felt, and the betrayal had come after the French had supported the Dutch cause for independence on so many occasions in the past.

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May 24, 1667
War of Devolution, Part 2

In the coming summer campaign of 1668, Louis planned to conquer as many Spanish territories as possible, to use as bargaining chips at any peace negotiations. To this end, he planned to take the Spanish Franche-Comté before the summer campaign. The Franche-Comté was ripe for the picking, being isolated and practically devoid of Spanish troops. There were several reasons for this lack. Firstly, France had usually respected the territory's neutrality and had done so in the last war against Spain. Secondly, the Spanish generals did not expect an attack in the middle of winter.

Louis instructed the Prince de Condé to undertake preparations for a winter campaign against the Franche-Comté. Condé had fallen into disgrace as a former opponent of the King during the Fronde (see posting) and was entrusted with a military command in 1668 for the first time in 9 years. A second army of newly raised troops was set up and Louis once again personally accompanied the campaign. The King left Saint-Germain on February 2 to join up with the main army. It was at this point that he received news of the Triple Alliance; he was also informed by a spy that its members would be prepared to declare war on France. Despite this, he persisted with the campaign. Condé started the invasion on February 4, and on the 7th took Besancon. On the same day a further French corps under François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg managed to take Salin. Both strongholds put up practically no resistance.

After this, the French army concentrated on taking the town of Dole. This surrendered on February 14 after a short, but intense, siege of 4 days, in which 400-500 French soldiers lost their lives. Five days later, the stronghold of Gray also fell to the French. Louis returned to Saint-Germain, arriving on February 24. After only 17 days, the whole of the Franche-Comté was occupied. The reasons for this quick success were surprise, and the ill-preparedness of the Spanish. Furthermore, the local population tended to sympathize with the French, and mostly welcomed them.

In the southern front, the Spanish took the initiative, and led by the Viceroy of Catalonia the Duke of Osuna, invaded the Upper Cerdanya with 2500 troops. French defenses proved weak, and the Spanish were able to take control of 55 villages despite the local population, harassed by attacks of miquelets, cooperating with the French military against the invasion. Spanish incursions continued until 1669, even after the peace treaty, and forced the Marquis de Louvois, the French Secretary of State for War, to start the fortification of the military frontier.

The conquest of the Franche-Comté was initially only supposed to be the prelude to a broad campaign in the spring. The army's size had been increased to 134,000. But after Louis had secured the Franche-Comté, the immediate question was whether he should bow to the demands of the Triple Alliance, or continue the war. Louvois, Turenne and Condé were in favor of continuing as the situation seemed advantageous, since the Spanish were significantly weakened. On the other hand, foreign minister Hugues de Lionne and finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert both preferred to see a peace treaty signed quickly, as the costs of continuing the war were incalculable (so far it had cost more than 18 million livres), and the international conditions were worsening. Louis was forced to accept that France was no match for a coalition of Spain, the Netherlands, England and Sweden, and therefore announced a cease-fire and started negotiations.

During the negotiations, the Triple Alliance managed to enforce their demands: France abandoned the Franche-Comté, but first destroyed the fortifications of Gray and Dole. The French also had to withdraw from the Spanish Netherlands. A total of 12 conquered cities would remain in the hands of the French king: Lille, Tournai, Oudenarde, Courtrai, Furnes, Bergues, Douai with la Scarpe, Binche, Charleroi, Ath and Armentiers. These conditions were confirmed by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (May 7, 1668). Losses during the war are uncertain. Due to the short duration, however, they were probably fairly low.

From a purely military perspective, France had gained some advantages, by breaking through the ring of fortresses that surrounded the Spanish Netherlands. This increased the French defensive power, as Vauban immediately set about expanding the conquered cities into strong fortifications. These in turn served as starting points from which further French campaigns could be launched in later wars. On the political level, the results were less positive for Louis. The King's reputation in the Holy Roman Empire had certainly been damaged, due to taking the free imperial city of Besancon. Due to perceived French expansionism, allies such as the Elector of Brandenburg abandoned France. This U-turn of many Imperial States was made vivid when, in 1673, at the beginning of the second invasion of Louis XIV, during the Franco-Dutch War, they declared an imperial war on France.

The most important consequence, however, was the changed attitude of Louis towards the United Provinces. The King mostly blamed them, his former allies, for the creation of the Triple Alliance, whose pressure had put a halt to his conquests. French foreign policy of the following years was therefore completely geared towards isolating the United Provinces, to attack them at a convenient opportunity. After succeeding in isolating them through alliances with several German princes, England and Sweden, Louis XIV started the Franco-Dutch War in 1672, which was to expand into a pan-European conflict.

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May 25, 1813
Battle of FortGeorge

Ft. George was the westernmost of the British fortified posts on Lake Ontario, situated on the western bank of the Niagara River near its mouth. On the American side of the river lay Ft. Niagara. Ft. George was constructed to replace and counterbalance Ft. Niagara, which the British lost to the Americans after Jay's Treaty in 1796. At the beginning of the War of 1812 the British had 400 soldiers of the 41st Regiment and a Captain's Command of Artillery stationed at Ft. George. It was not felt, however, that the fort would be able to withstand an attack by the Americans if they came with a large force. Meanwhile, American commanders at Ft. Niagara were also pessimistic and were demanding more reinforcements.

In October 1812, the Americans made an attempt to take the fort by attacking Queenston, drawing British troops away from the fort, which would then be taken by a second force. This plan was thwarted by the heavy defeat of the first force (see posting, Battle of Queenston Heights).

The Americans drafted a new plan in February. The plan was to attack Kingston, then York from Sackets Harbor with 4000 soldiers. Only then were they to assault Ft. George. Simultaneously 3000 soldiers from Buffalo were to capture Ft. Erie then march on Ft. George. The plan was changed to avoid Kingston because Maj. Gen. Henry Dearborn, commander of the armies on the frontier with Canada, believed there were 6-8000 British soldiers at Kingston due to a false report. On April 27, the Americans captured York (see posting, Battle of York). The American army was then transported across the lake by ship to Ft. Niagara. Dearborn planned to attack Ft. George next, but his army required rest and reorganization.

At Fort George, the Americans planned to land on the shore of the lake rather than on the shore of the Niagara River. The landing would be supported by 12 schooners, each mounting 1 or more heavy cannon, which could approach the shore closely. Two larger vessels, the corvette Madison (22) and the brig Oneida (16) would engage the nearest British batteries. The American army numbered approximately 4000 regular infantry. The force was divided into 4 waves, which would land in succession. The first wave was to be commanded by Col. Winfield Scott, the second by Brig. Gen. John Parker Boyd, and the third by Brig. Gen. William Winder, a recently commissioned lawyer. A brigade under a political appointee, Brig. Gen. John Chandler, formed the reserve, together with most of the artillery under Col. Alexander Macomb. The Army's second-in-command, Maj. Gen. Morgan Lewis, was nominally in overall command of the landing force. Dearborn, the commander in chief, would observe from aboard Madison. On May 25 they began to bombard Ft. George from positions along the river, from Ft. Niagara, and from the schooners. Much of the land-based artillery used heated shot; several log buildings within Ft. George burned down, and the women and children were forced to take shelter within the bastions.

The commander of British forces on the Niagara peninsula was Brig. Gen. John Vincent. He had 1000 regulars (the bulk of 1st battalion of the 8th (King's) Regiment and the 49th Regiment, with detachments of the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles and the Glengarry Light Infantry). There were also up to 300 militia, including Captain Runchey's Company of Colored Men. Although Vincent knew that an assault was imminent, he could not know from which direction it would come. To try to cover the entire threatened front, he split his regulars into 3 detachments to counterattack the Americans when they landed. Most regulars were placed on the Niagara River, assuming that the Americans would attack under cover of their guns in Fort Niagara.

The attack, however, did not come along the Niagara River. Just after dawn on May 27, an early morning fog dispersed to reveal the American vessels off the lake shore to the west. Scott's troops began landing west of the mouth of the Niagara River, while the schooners silenced the nearby British batteries. A company of the Glengarry Light Infantry charged the Americans with the bayonet as they waded ashore, but the outnumbered Canadians were forced to retreat, losing half their men. A company of the Royal Newfoundland also attacked but took heavy casualties from grapeshot fired by the schooners. Scott advanced from the beach but was counterattacked by British troops (the remnants of the Canadians, plus five companies of the 8th, Runchey's company and 100 other militia) which had been concentrated in a ravine out of the American fire. Scott was driven back, but once again the fire from the schooners caused heavy losses. Scott was reinforced by the leading troops of Boyd's brigade, which was just landing, and the British were driven back in turn.

As Winder's brigade also began landing, Vincent realized that he was outnumbered and outflanked and decided to evacuate his soldiers before they were completely encircled. He ordered an immediate retreat south to Queenston. Although he ordered the fort's guns to be spiked and the magazines blown up, the task was so hastily performed and Scott pursued so closely that the Americans were able to secure the fort substantially intact. One small magazine did explode, and the blast threw Scott from his horse and broke his collarbone. (Some British women and children had been left behind in the fort in the hasty retreat and would have suffered heavy casualties if the demolitions had proceeded as Vincent ordered.)

Scott pressed after Vincent and the American batteries bombarded the retreating British from the other side of the river. Vincent's rearguards held off Scott, although several stragglers were captured. However, the American plan had allowed for only 2 companies of light dragoons to cross the Niagara 5 miles above Ft. George cut off Vincent's retreat. The dragoons were delayed in their crossing by a British battery, and then paused to assemble. They were too late to the field to have any effect. As Scott waited for the dragoons to reorganize before pressing on again, Boyd brought him orders from Maj. Gen. Lewis to abandon the pursuit and return to Ft. George. Lewis feared that the British would lead Scott into an ambush.

The U.S. Army lost 40 men killed and 111 wounded, while the Navy lost 1 killed and 2 wounded. The British and Canadians lost 183 killed, wounded or missing, and 276 captured.

When the Americans broke off the pursuit, Vincent continued his retreat to Beaver Dams, near present-day Thorold, ON, where he gathered in the other British regular detachments from posts higher up the Niagara, and temporarily disbanded the militia, before falling back to Burlington Heights near the western end of Lake Ontario, abandoning Ft. Erie.

The American army was slow to exploit the capture of Ft. George by advancing up the Niagara peninsula, and they allowed Vincent to launch a surprise attack at the Battle of Stoney Creek (see posting), after which the Americans withdrew to Ft. George. By concentrating their naval squadron against Fort George, the Americans had also left themselves vulnerable to a counterattack on their base, and only indecisive command by Sir George Prevost allowed the Americans to fight him off at the Battle of Sackett's Harbor (see posting).

The Americans subsequently remained in a small enclave around Ft. George. After a disaster when a sortie against a British outpost was surrounded and forced to surrender by Native Americans at the Battle of Beaver Dams (see posting), they remained largely inactive on this front until they abandoned the fort in December 1813.

[Ennath]

May 26, 1093
Battle of the StugnaRiver

The Cumans raided Rus soon after the death of Vsevolod of Kiev and sought to buy peace with the new great prince, Sviatopolk. However Sviatopolk imprisoned the Cuman ambassadors, and the Cumans came in force to attack Kiev in retaliation. Facing an enemy army of 8000, Sviatopolk called for help from Vladimir Monomakh, prince of Chernigov. Vladimir came with his troops and also called upon his brother, Rostislav of Pereyaslav.

Sviatopolk released the Cuman ambassadors, but it was too late to halt operations. The troops of the three princes joined together and set out for the city of Trepol. Approaching the Stugna River, the princes were undecided, so they stopped for council, while the Cumans were across the river facing them. Vladimir, whose wife was a Cuman princess, continued to demand that they sue for peace, but the Kievan troops wanted battle. They crossed the river and met the Cumans in a valley at the rampart of Trepol. Sviatopolk deployed on the right, Rostislav in the center, and Vladimir on the left.

As the Kievan troops reached the rampart, the Cumans attacked Sviatapolk's wing, and after a bloody engagement, his troops broke. Sviatapolk attempted to make a stand but the rush of his retreating men carried him away. Vladimir's force was attacked next and after a fierce confrontation the entire Rus army was in retreat. Sviatapolk took shelter in Trepol, but Rostislav and Vladimir attempted to swim the Stugna River. Rostislav, in heavy chain armor, drowned. Vladimir retreated to Chernigov and Sviatapolk retreated at night to Kiev.

[Ennath]

1192
2nd Battle of Tarain

Muhammad of Ghur was the younger brother of Ghiyas ud-din, the Emperor of Ghur (a state in modern Afghanistan) from 1162 to 1202. During most of his brother's reign Muhammad was his viceroy in Ghazni, once the capital of the Ghaznevid dynasty. Muhammad began campaigning into India in 1175, but for the next decade he concentrated on eliminating the Ghaznevid presence in the Punjab. By the late 1180s this had been achieved, and Muhammad was free to turn his attention to the Hindu kingdoms of Northern India.

During the winter of 1190-91 Muhammad captured the fortress of Bhatinda, then part of the Chauhan Rajput kingdom of Prithviraja Chauhana III. Prithviraja responded to the threat by raising an army which met his enemy at a place called Tarain (also called Taraori) near the ancient town of Thanesar. Prithviraja was able to take advantage of superior numbers, driving both wings of Muhammad's army from the field. Muhammad's center still held, and he attempted to save the day by leading a charge against the Hindu center. During the fighting, he was badly wounded and almost captured, but one of his men managed to get him to safety. The remains of Muhammad's army managed to escape back across the Indus, and retreated back to Ghazni. A garrison was left in Bhatinda, which held out for 13 months, while Muhammad prepared for his return.

Muhammad returned to India in 1192. He sent an envoy to Prithviraj to demand his submission, but the Chauhan ruler refused to comply and issued a fervent appeal to his fellow Rajput chiefs to come to his aid against the Muslim invader.

Muhammad had an army strong in mounted Turkish archers and a plan that he hoped would negate the Hindu advantage in numbers. He found Prithviraja camped at Tarain, close to the site of the first battle, and put his plan into operation. Muhammad's army was split into 5 divisions, four of mounted archers and one of heavy cavalry. The mounted archers were ordered to attack the flanks and rear of Prithviraja's army, and to avoid melee combat.

Prithviraja didn't have any effective answer to this new tactic, and his army slowly lost its cohesion. In hopes of causing a break in the Rajput lines, Muhammad ordered his 5th division to feign retreat. As he hoped, the Rajputs launched their heavy cavalry in pursuit. Muhammad’s center then turned and drove the Rajputs back. Prithviraja's army was broken, and a rout began. Prithviraja attempted to escape on horseback, but was captured and killed close to the Saraswati River.

Northern India had seen Muslim victories before, but they had not led to any permanent conquests. This time things were different. Delhi was soon captured, and in 1194 Raja Jaichandra of Kanauj suffered a crushing defeat at Chandwar. By the end of the century Bihar and Bengal had also fallen to the Muslims, and by the time Muhammad was murdered in 1206, the foundations had been laid for the Delhi Sultanate, the first Muslim state to dominate northern India.

[Ennath]

May 27, 1944
Battle of Biak

Biak Island, dominating the entrance to Geelvink Bay, near the western end of New Guinea, was a very strong defensive position. Although it was a coral island, it wasn't flat like most, but instead contained high cliffs, hills and countless caves. The southern coast was protected by reefs and lined by high cliffs. The biggest area of flat ground was towards the southern tip of the island, and the Japanese had built three airfields here (Mokmer in the east, Borokeo in the center and Sorido in the west). In addition the Americans had badly underestimated the strength of the Japanese garrison and believed that there were 2-4000 men on the island.

There were, in fact, 11,000 men under Col. Naoyuki Kuzume. Most of these were support staff, and only about a third were front line troops. Kuzume decided to defend the airfields by digging into the hills above them. A network of supply dumps and strongpoints was built into the caves, allowing the Japanese to dominate the landing beaches. The caves would also prove to be largely immune to the pre-invasion bombardments, and very difficult to knock out with conventional weapons. When the battle began Gen. Takazo Numata, Chief of Staff of 2nd Area Army, was on the island for an inspection visit, and took command of the defense.

The attack was to be carried out by all but one regiment of 41st Division (Gen. Horace Fuller). The other regiment was allocated to the invasion of the Wakde-Sarmi area, which was timetabled to begin 10 days earlier in order to allow the same assault vessels to be used. The plan was to land on the south coast east of the airfields. The bombardment obscured the coast and when the troops landed on May 27, they came ashore 3000 yards west of the target, facing a mangrove swamp. As the Japanese had decided not to try and defend the beaches the landing was unopposed, and the beachhead was firmly established by the end of the day.

Immediately after landing, 162nd Regiment began to advance west towards the airfields. This mean that the American beachhead was long but narrow, and on May 28-29 the Japanese counterattacked and cut the coastal road between the 162nd and the beachhead. The isolated regiment had to be rescued by ship and returned to the main beachhead.

On May 31, the 3rd regiment, the 163rd, landed on Biak after being withdrawn from the Wakde-Sarmi battle. Once these reinforcements arrived the Americans began to prepare for a second offensive. This time Fuller decided on a 2-pronged attack, with the 162nd advancing along the coast and the 186th on a parallel route inland. The attack began early on June 1, and made steady progress. That night, the Japanese attacked the 3/186th Infantry. The attack was repulsed with heavy losses. The advance resumed early on the 2nd. During the day the Americans realized that they were advancing into one of the main Japanese strongpoints, an area known as the Ibdi Pocket. The main effort for the next days went into clearing this pocket. The Americans waited for an expected counterattack after aerial reconnaissance suggested reinforcements were heading to Biak. This attack didn't materialize and the attack resumed on June 5.

The next day, the 186th was about to attack the high ground north of Mokmer, when orders arrived from Fuller to take the airfield as quickly as possible. The attack went in on the morning of June 7. The airfield fell quickly, but the Americans had moved into the exact position that the Japanese wanted. At 9.45 a ring of Japanese guns opened fire from the surrounding ridges. The Americans held out, and by the end of the day had secured the position, but with the ridges still in Japanese hands they were no nearer to bringing it into use. The Americans made little progress over the next 4 days, but they did manage to get the 162nd Infantry to Mokmer to reinforce the 186th. A new attempt to clear the area north of Mokmer began on June 11. The 162nd and 186th advanced west and secured most of the airfield. On the 12th they began to push north, and began to secure most of the lower lying land north of the airfield. By the end of June 15 the Japanese had been pushed back into a small defensive area northwest of the airfield, close to one of their major defensive positions known as the West Caves.

By now the American high command was frustrated with what they saw as unacceptably slow progress on Biak. The decision was made to place Gen. Robert Eichelberger, commander of I Corps, in command; Fuller was to be left in command of his division. Fuller made it clear that he wasn’t willing to remain under those circumstances; he was relieved on June 18, but as a sign of the high regard he was still held in was made Deputy Chief of Staff for Admiral Mountbatten's Southeast Asia Command. Gen. Doe, deputy commander of the 41st, took over as divisional commander. The new commander took several days to examine the situation he had inherited, and then decided to implement a very similar plan to his predecessor. Eichelberger realized that clearing the Japanese off the ridge north of Mokmer Airfield was more important than the easy seizure of Borokoe and Sorido Airfields.

During the first half of June the Japanese made 3 attempts to get a major convoy to Biak, the KON Force. All 3 failed, although 100-200 men did reach the island. During the same period around 1000 men probably reached the island by barge. In response, a regiment from 24th Division was sent as reinforcement for the 41st.

The American attack resumed on June 16. Japanese resistance was overcome, and the last part of the low ridge south of the West Caves was cleared in 2 hours, but progress after that was slow. By the end of the day the West Caves were almost surrounded. More progress was made the next day. Eichelberger then decided on a larger offensive using the full strength of the 162nd and 186th Regiments, to start on June 19. By the end of the day this attack had surrounded the West Caves, and the Americans prepared for 2 operations on 20 June - one aimed at the West Caves and the other heading further into the high ground overlooking the airfields. On June 21 the main effort was mounted against the strongest positions in the West Caves. The main cave was attacked by pouring fuel in and setting it alight. On the night of June 21-22 the surviving Japanese in the caves launched an attack in an attempt to escape from the area. 3 attempts were made; all were repulsed. Japanese sources suggest that this attack was triggered by Col. Kuzume after he decided that the battle was lost, and ordered his men to attempt to escape to the north and west. The colonel was probably killed in combat a few days later. This didn't end resistance in the West Caves area, and on June 22 heavy demolition charges were used to try and seal the entrances. A few survivors were encountered over the next few days, and the area wasn't entirely cleared until June 27.

The fighting in the West Caves had finally removed the last barrier to operations on Mokmer Field. On June 22 the first P-40s began to operate from the airfield. The focus then moved on to securing the other 2 airfields and pushing the Japanese further away from the airfield area. Eichelberger was happy that the main part of the job was now completed and handed command over to Gen. Doe on June 28. Doe almost immediately lost the 34th Infantry, which was to prepare for another campaign. On the same day the Japanese received new orders of their own when the 2nd Area Army ordered the Biak Detachment to prepare for guerrilla warfare. In fact the detachment had suffered so heavily by the end of June that they were unable to follow this order, and consistent American patrols denied them the chance they needed to change their role.

The first major attack on the East Caves began on July 3 when engineers supported by tanks sealed up some of the tunnel entrances. Over the next few days the Americans pushed further into the area, only to discover that the Japanese had evacuated. The East Caves were quickly secured, although isolated Japanese troops continued to pop up until July 20.

There had been combat in the Ibdi Pocket since the start of June, and US infantry operated in the area until June 28, slowly pushing the Japanese west. After that they carried out a mix of patrols and bombardments. This weakened the defenses and also cleared some of the jungle. On July 11. the 3/163rd Infantry began a new phase of operations. These lasted until July 22, when the battalion commander announced that organized resistance was over. Mopping up operations took another week.

At the end of July there were still 4000 Japanese troops on the island. During August the Americans conducted vigorous patrolling in order to prevent them from reorganizing. The Japanese had orders to move to Wardo Bay on the west coast, but on August 17, the 1/186th Infantry landed there. Some Japanese were ambushed as they approached, others broke and scattered into the interior and concentrated on survival.

Of the Japanese garrison, only 450 men were captured, mainly wounded and Korean auxiliaries. The Americans lost 484 killed, 2428 wounded, and 3500 down with jungle illnesses.

[Ennath]

May 28, 1948
Fall of the Jewish Quarter

At the end of the 19th century, the 19,000 Jews living in the Old City comprised the majority of the population there. This was too large a number to be comfortably housed in the limited area available and construction began of dwellings outside the walls. Thus, while the number of Jews in Jerusalem as a whole increased, the Jewish population of the Old City dwindled By the outbreak of the War of Independence, the number of Jews in the Old City did not exceed 2000. Those who were able to do so moved out, leaving behind the poor and those in need of financial support from the residents of the New City.

According to the UN resolution of November 29, 1947, Jerusalem was to be under a special international regime. As fighting erupted by the end of 1947, doubts were raised as to the ability of the UN to enforce the internationalization of Jerusalem and the need arose to reinforce the city's defenses. However, the Zionist leaders hoped that the Old City would be spared serious fighting due to its religious standing. In order to avoid provocation, the defenders of the Jewish Quarter were given strict orders not to open fire except in life-threatening situations..

On December 3, 1947, a bus en route to the Quarter was attacked at Jaffa Gate. One Jew was killed and 8 injured. The first shots were fired at the Quarter on the same day. On December 10, the Haganah dispatched 2 platoons to the Old City and the Irgun a company. There was some friction between the 2 Jewish groups and not until April was an agreement on military cooperation reached.

On December 10, the Arabs made their first attacks on the Jewish Quarter. The British authorities now decided to send a military force into the Old City. Two platoons were deployed between the Jews and the Arabs, in the process of which some Jewish positions were seized, a search conducted, weapons confiscated and 15 fighters arrested. More searches were conducted in the Quarter, whilst the Arabs were allowed to move around openly armed.

Convoys, which initially entered through Jaffa Gate, established contact with the Jewish Quarter but as Arab attacks increased they began to use Zion Gate instead (this route did not traverse Arab neighborhoods). After the British entered the Old City, they undertook to escort the convoys, but prevented the transfer of arms and fighters to the Jewish Quarter. (The Arabs were not stopped from bringing weapons and troops into the City).

The calm in the Old City was short-lived; in January 1948 Arabs attacked the Warsaw buildings and blew up the Jewish military post located there. The British watched from the sidelines. Several days later, a Jewish convoy was attacked en route from the Dead Sea to Jerusalem. The defenders of the Jewish Quarter saw what was happening and opened fire on the attackers. The British response was to confiscate all the weapons they found there before blowing the post up. This was the first case of the British attacking and destroying a Jewish position, and it indicated to the Arabs that they could attack the Jews with impunity. Violence continued to escalate into the spring.


April, a relatively quiet month, was exploited for training and briefings before the British departure. That month several convoys reached the Old City, bringing food supplies, clothes and small quantities of light weapons and explosives. At the end of the month a new transmitter was brought in, enabling the Quarter to maintain contact with the New City. In addition to the weapons smuggled in, the Quarter's residents bought weapons and ammunition from the Arabs via Armenian agents, though insufficient to meet their needs. The 70 Haganah and 44 Irgun fighters were combined in a unified command, augmented by adult residents.

In the second half of April 1948, discussions were held at the United Nations on a ceasefire in Jerusalem. On May 2, the Haganah ordered a ceasefire in the Old City, so as to enable the continuation of the negotiations. The ceasefire lasted until the last British soldier had left the city.

On the eve of independence, the Jewish garrison possessed 17 rifles, 42 Stens, 2 machine guns and a 2” mortar. There were 300 rounds for each rifle. The presence of the civilian population was also a problem. No effort was made to evacuate them from the Old City. Indeed, they were actively prevented from leaving on their own initiative. As early as January, when the siege first began, Ben-Gurion instructed Jerusalem commander David Shaltiel to prevent the exodus of Jews from the Old City, but despite stringent precautions, several hundred Jews nonetheless succeeded in leaving the Old City by various means.

On May 13, the British forces left the Old City. Jewish forces occupied the British positions in the Jewish Quarter, as well as the Zion Gate and the Greek Church, in the Armenian Quarter. The spire of this Church rises above the buildings of the Armenian Quarter and overlooks most of the Jewish Quarter, Zion Gate and the road between the Quarter and Zion Gate. Whoever controlled the post thus also controlled the Jewish Quarter. After complaints from the Armenian Patriarch, Shaltiel ordered the Church position abandoned. Two days later, it was occupied by the Arabs. That same day, the Arabs seized the Zion Gate, sealing off the Quarter. From the evening of May 15, the ceasefire in the Old City ceased to exist.

On the 16th, Arab forces occupied the entire Armenian Quarter and launched a major assault on the Jewish Quarter. The next morning, the Arabs captured Habad Street, but were checked at the Street of the Jews. There was panic in the Jewish Quarter and within the civilian population there was a growing demand for surrender. Calls for help were sent to district headquarters, and assistance was promised. When night fell, after looting and burning, the Arabs withdrew from the area they had captured.

On May 18, the 1st Company of the Arab Legion entered the Old City. On the 19th, an attack was launched on the Sheikh Jarrach neighborhood to link with the Old City from the north. Led by armored cars, the Legion took French Hill, then took the Police School., cutting ground links to Mt. Scopus (which would remain cut off from Israel until 1967). They then began shelling the Jewish Quarter with mortars and 25-pounders.

After the Transjordanian arrival in the Old City, the Haganah command ordered an attack on the Jaffa Gate to establish contact with the Old City defenders. A diversionary attack would be mounted at Mt. Zion. However, when the attack began in the evening of the 18th, the 2 attacks were not coordinated and the assault at the Jaffa Gate failed. The diversionary attack, however, captured Mt. Zion, reached the Zion Gate in the early morning, blew a breach and linked up with the garrison. The exhausted attackers were pulled out of the line and replaced with poorly trained recruits. On the 19th, the Legion retook the Zion Gate and restored the siege.

The Legionnaires now pressed the attack in the Old City. Hand-to-hand fighting took place from house to house and room to room. Renewed attacks on the Zion Gate failed. On May 26, the Arabs introduced a new strategy: loudspeaker appeals to the residents of the Quarter in which the Jews were given 7 hours to surrender, before the entire Jewish Quarter was destroyed. The civilians besieged the Quarter command post demanding that the Arab offer be accepted. HQ informed the city command at midnight that if help did not arrive that night, the Quarter would surrender, and called for the Red Cross be brought in to arrange for the evacuation of civilians. Dawn broke on May 27, but reinforcements still had not arrived. It was clear to all that the end was approaching. The enemy launched an onslaught on the Street of the Jews, and the Hurva Synagogue was captured and blown up by the Arabs.

Ammunition ran out and the defended area shrunk to 200 square yards around the Nissan Bek Synagogue and Misgav Ladach Hospital, whose cellars were overflowing with wounded. By May 28, only 300 rounds of ammunition remained and there were only 36 men fit to man their positions. The garrison commanders gave in to the pleading of the community leaders and agreed to negotiate for surrender. Some of the fighters became prisoners of war. 1190 civilians evacuated their homes, as the Arabs looted and burned the Quarter.

The capture of the OldCity would be the only real success the Arab Legion would achieve in Jerusalem. The Jewish holy places in the OldCity remained closed to Jews for the next 19 years, until the Six Day War.