The Military History Thread

[Dr Pepper]

Originally Posted by danton

[Edit by danton. Please read the entire entry.]

O'Duffy led Ireland's Green Shirts to fight for Gen. Franco in the Spanish Civil War. Fellow fascist sympathiser, W.B.Yeats wrote a marching song for the contingent. It amazes me how so many on the British Left take such a rosey view of Irish Republicanism, as if it were some Celtic varient of socialism. Even more amazing is how wonderful the Irish are. The whole thing was a disaster for all concerned. Sentimentality breeds brutality?

And the International Brigades on the Republican side weren't a disaster for all concerned?

[Ennath]

July 6, 1495
Battle of Fornovo

Charles VIII of France dreamed of recapturing Jerusalem for Christendom. This was to be preceded by the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples, to which he had a nebulous claim through his paternal grandmother, Marie of Anjou (1404–1463). To have his hands free in Italy, Charles made costly pacts with all his neighbors, so they would not interfere. Henry VII was given cash, Ferdinand II of Aragon was given Roussillon and Emperor Maximilian was given Artois and Franche-Comté. However, Charles was willing to pay this price in his attempt to establish his Neapolitan base for his crusade.

Charles VIII was on good terms with the two powers of northern Italy, Milan and Venice, and both had encouraged him to make good his claims over Naples. Thus he assumed he would have their support when he moved, especially as the rival claimant was Ferdinand II of Aragon, King of Spain. At the end of August 1494 Charles led a powerful French army with a large contingent of Swiss mercenaries and the first artillery train in history into Italy. He was granted free passage through Milan, but was vigorously opposed by Florence, Pope Alexander VI, and Naples. On his way, Charles crushed every small army that the Pope and Naples could send against him and massacred any town that resisted him. This shocked the Italians, who were accustomed to the relatively bloodless wars of the Condottieri. Medici-ruled Florence fell quickly, and the French helped with the restoration of Republican government. Pope Alexander VI soon realized that he didn't have the military strength to resist the French, and allowed them to pass through his lands. As the French approached Naples, King Alfonso II abdicated in favor of his more popular son Ferdinand II, but the new king was also unable to stop the French and was forced to flee to Sicily.

On February 22, 1495, Charles VIII, with his general Louis II de La Trémoille, entered Naples almost without opposition. The speed and violence of the campaign left the Italians stunned. Realization struck them, especially the Venetians and the new Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, that unless Charles was stopped Italy would soon be another province of France. Pope Alexander VI led the formation of a alliance against Charles. On March 31, in Venice the Holy League (more popularly the League of Venice) was proclaimed; the signatories were the Republic of Venice, the Duke of Milan, the Pope, the Spanish King, the English King, and Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.

The League engaged a veteran Condottiero, Francesco II of Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua to gather an army and expel the French from Italy. By May 1, this army was threatening the garrisons that Charles had left in a trail down Italy to guard his communications with France. The Milanese laid siege to Novara, defended by a French garrison, while the main part of the army, perhaps as many as 40,000 men under Gonzaga prepared to stop Charles escaping from Italy. On May 20, Charles left Naples at the head of 7200 French cavalry, 4000 Swiss pikemen and 2000 Gascon crossbowmen, leaving behind a garrison to hold the country and proclaiming that he only desired a safe return to France.

As a footnote, Charles' army had picked up a terrible malady while in Naples. While it is unclear whether it was imported from the New World or a more virulent strain of an Old World disease, the first known epidemic of syphilis had broken out in the city. As the French Army returned north this malady would be spread across Italy, and eventually all of Europe. Spread by the returning soldiers, it would be known through most of Europe as the “French disease”.

Besides syphilis, Charles was taking with him both his large siege train and a baggage train that was loaded with the rich booty from Florence, Rome, and Naples. Charles was able to advance most of the way up the peninsula without any problem, but the danger came when he had to cross the Apennine Mountains to get back into the Po Valley. He chose to advance to Pontremoli and then over a pass into the Taro valley, then follow the valley downstream, emerging in the Po Valley between Cremona and Parma. On July 4, the French reached the village of Fornovo and found their passage blocked by the main League army camped on the right bank of the river, blocking the normal route down the valley.

The Venetian Senate was not unanimous on fighting the French. Some members wanted to attack the rear guard of the French to try to seize the money, while others cautioned that Italy was risking too much in this battle, while for the French it was just one army. They had plenty more to draw upon. On July 4, Ercole d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, Charles' strongest ally in Italy, wrote the king to tell him that the Senate had not yet decided. But Charles was anxious, seeing the enemy numbers growing, while he had no hope of reinforcements. When an effort to sway the undecided forces of Parma was thwarted by the Venetians, Charles instead sent a messenger to request free passage to return to France, but the Venetians replied that he would have to restore all his conquests before such could be considered. The messenger, having scouted the troops, reported back to Charles. The forty soldiers Charles subsequently sent to reconnoiter were quickly routed by Stradiot mercenaries from Albania.

Two days later, July 6, the French, short on provisions, resumed their advance. The League army was on the right bank of the Taro, so in order to try and avoid a major battle Charles ordered his men to cross to the left bank. Charles organized his army in battle groups. The first group, a troop of about 2500, was led by Gian Giacomo Trivulzio. The second, the largest, was led by Charles himself. The final group, of about 1400, was led by Francesco Secco. Charles had about 12,000 men in all. Artillery ranged before the first line and protected the second line on the side of the Taro. Francesco Gonzaga divided his force in nine groups. He had about 20,000 men, including 4000 men-at-arms.

The main League force, under Giovanni Gonzago, began the attack, intending to hit Charles’ main force, but the League troops had to move south to find a ford, while the French continued to move north. As a result Gonzago's attack fell on the French rear-guard, commanded by Louis de la Trémoille. Charles, with the main battle, turned back to support the rearguard. An Italian cavalry attack and the defeated cavalry was chased back to the ford. This setback caused a great deal of confusion in the League army, and stopped Gonzago's attack. Heavy rain was causing the river to rise and, combined with confusion in signals, kept the League forces from reinforcing the attack.

While the battle was at its most delicate point, the Stradioti saw that the French guarding the baggage train were being driven out by Italian light cavalry, and they immediately left their positions to fell upon the rich baggage to plunder it. They were effectively out of the fight. The French artillery did not play a role because the rain wetted the powder.

The Venetian reserve entered battle. Niccolò di Pitigliano, managing to reach the Venetians, told them that the French were demoralized. A number of the Italians were fleeing the battle, but Pitigliano and the Venetians were instrumental in turning back many by convincing them that the battle was being won or that, even if it were not, it would be better to die in battle than be executed for the loss. After over an hour of fighting, the French were forced back to a hilltop and both sides returned to camp. The French had lost about 1100 men, while the Italians lost about 2000. The French had lost the booty of the Italian expedition. A day's truce was declared for burial of the dead. The French then resumed their march north during the night, reaching the relative safety of Asti on July 15.

Both sides claimed victory. The French had the better claim to victory, but their position in Italy was still weak. Their fleet was captured at Rapallo, and the loot taken from Naples was lost, while the Duke of Orleans was forced to surrender at Novara before a relief army could arrive. Charles decided to make peace with Ludovico Sforza at Milan, and in mid-October returned back across the Alps to France. At about the same time as Charles was evading the League trap at Fornovo, Ferdinand II was being welcomed back into the city of Naples, and with Spanish support he was soon able to regain control of his kingdom.

Charles attempted in the next few years to rebuild his army, but was hampered by the serious debts incurred by the previous war. He died in 1498 striking himself on the head while passing through a doorway, he succumbed to a sudden coma several hours later. He left France in debt and disarray as a result of an ambition most charitably characterized as unrealistic, and having lost several important provinces that would take centuries to recover. On a more positive side, his expedition did broaden contacts between French and Italian humanists, sparking the Northern Renaissance. On his death, the throne passed to a cousin, the duc d'Orléans, who reigned as Louis XII, who would try to make good his clearer claim to the Duchy of Milan.

However, for Italy the consequences were catastrophic. Europe knew now, from the French and German soldiers in Charles' expedition, of an incredibly rich land, divided into easily conquerable principalities. Italy was to be the scene of a dispute between the main continental powers, where the Italians were left with only a secondary role in their own destiny. The Italian Wars, which would rage until 1559, were underway.

[Ennath]

July 7, 1937
MarcoPoloBridge Incident

Tensions between Japan and China had been growing since the Invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and subsequent creation of a puppet state, Manchukuo. Although the Kuomintang (KMT) government of China refused to recognize Manchukuo, a truce had been negotiated in 1932. However, in early 1933, the Japanese Army invaded and annexed Jehol Province.

Under the terms of the Boxer Protocol of 1901, China had granted nations with legations in Peking the right to station guards at twelve points along railways connecting Peking with Tiensin. This was to ensure open communications between the capital and the port. By a supplementary agreement in 1902, these forces were allowed to conduct maneuvers without informing the authorities of other nations in China. By mid 1937, Japan was maintaining between 7000 and 15,000 men along the railways. This was several times the size of the detachments deployed by European powers and the USA, and greatly in excess of the limits set by the Boxer Protocol.

In July 1937, the Japanese began conducting nighttime military maneuvers in the regions surrounding the Marco Polo bridge in Wanping. The bridge is a large granite structure of 11 arches that spans the Yongding River. It is a centuries old structure, last restored in the late 1600s. The Chinese objected, but were not eager to create an incident. Nevertheless, they requested that the Japanese let local officials know these were merely training exercises.

On the night of July 7, during maneuvers, there was an exchange of fire near the bridge at about 2300. The exact cause of this incident still remains a mystery. Some historians believe the incident was an unintentional accident, made more likely by the state of heightened tension. Some believe that the incident may have been fabricated by the Japanese Army to provide a pretext for the invasion of China. However, if it was deliberate, it is unclear why the Japanese did not follow up the incident with an immediate offensive.

During the firing, a Japanese soldier, Private Shimura Kikujiro failed to return to his post. The next day, the Japanese demanded the right to conduct a search for the soldier in Chinese territory. The Chinese countered by offering to conduct their own search and invited a Japanese officer to observe. The Japanese agreed, but events began escalating. Although Private Shimura returned to his unit, by this point both sides were mobilizing.

At around 0400 on the morning of July 8, reinforcements of both sides began to arrive. About an hour or so later the Japanese Army opened fire and attacked the Marco Polo Bridge, along with a modern railway bridge to the southeast of town. After furious fighting, the Chinese were forced to retreat to the other side of the Yongding River. As the Japanese command had ordered its forces to advance only as far as the river, the fighting might have ended at this point, as the Japanese military and members of the Foreign Service began negotiations with the Chinese Nationalist government.

A verbal agreement was reached, whereby an apology would be given to the Chinese, punishment would be dealt to those responsible, control of Wanping would be turned over to the Hopei civilian constabulary and not the Chinese Army, and there would be better control of “communists” in the area. This was agreed even though the local Japanese commander General Masakazu Kawabe initially rejected the truce and, against his superiors' orders, continued to shell Wanping for the next 3 hours, until prevailed upon to cease and to move his forces to the northeast.

Although a ceasefire had been installed, further efforts to defuse the escalating conflict failed, largely due to actions by the Japanese China Army commanders and militarists within the Imperial General Staff. Wanping was shelled on July 20 and full scale fighting erupted at Langfang on July 25. After launching a bloody attack on the Japanese lines on the 27th, General Sung was defeated and forced to retreat behind the Yongding River by the next day. The Japanese gave Sung and his troops free passage, then moved in to pacify areas surrounding Peking and Tiensin. However, the Japanese Army had been given orders not to advance further than the Yongding. In a sudden volte-face, the Konoe government opened negotiations with Chiang Kai-Shek's government in Nanking and stated, “Japan wants Chinese cooperation, not Chinese land.” Nevertheless, negotiations failed to move further than preparation and, on August 9, a Japanese naval officer was shot in Shanghai, instigating full-scale war.

[Ennath]

July 8, 1283
Battle of Malta

Soon after the Sicilian Vespers rising (March 30, 1282), the Sicilians turned to Pedro of Aragon to free them from French dominion. Pedro was offered the throne of Sicily and accepted. The French Pope Martin IV, had meanwhile refused to help the Sicilian communes and the rebels were excommunicated, as was the Byzantine emperor and the Ghibellines of northern Italy, who both backed the rebellion.

Charles of Anjou gathered his forces in Calabria to suppress the revolt and made a landing near Messina and began a siege. Five months after the Vespers, on August 30, Pedro landed at Trapani. He quickly marched into Palermo and, on September 4, received the homage of the Sicilians and confirmed their ancient privileges. Only the vacancy of the Palermitan archdiocese prevented a coronation. Charles was still besieging Messina when Pedro's forces advanced; he was forced to vacate the isle by the end of October and was thenceforth restricted to the mainland. The pope then excommunicated the Aragonese king and deprived him of his kingdom (November 18).

Pedro pressed his advantage and by February 1283 had taken most of the Calabrian coastline. Charles, perhaps feeling desperate, sent letters to Pedro suggesting they resolve the conflict by personal combat. The invader accepted and Charles returned to France to arrange the duel. Both kings chose 6 knights to settle the details. The duel was scheduled for June 1 at Bordeaux. 100 knights would accompany each side and Edward I of England would judge; the English king, heeding the pope, refused to take part. Pedro left John of Procida in charge of Sicily and returned via his own kingdom to Bordeaux, which he entered in disguise to evade a suspected French ambush. Needless to say, no combat ever took place and Pedro returned to a troubled Spain.

Meanwhile, the Catalan admiral Roger de Lauria continued the war in Italy on behalf of Pedro. He had been ravaging the Calabrian coast and keeping up a strong naval presence. Prince Charles of Salerno, in the absence of his father, Charles of Anjou, had sent the Provencal fleet, about 22 galleys under William Cornut and Bartholemew Bonvin, to relieve the besieged garrison of Malta, which was trapped in the Castello del Mare in Grand Harbor after the inhabitants of Malta had revolted.

Roger sailed with 20 galleys to support the Maltese. Arriving at night, he made contact with a besieger and sent a sentry boat into the harbor. It reported that the Angevin galleys were beached under the castle walls. Roger moved his galleys into line abreast at the entrance to the harbor, silencing the guard boats in the process, and connected his ships together. At dawn he ordered a trumpet challenge to be sounded. His reason for doing this is not clear. Perhaps he wanted to show the bravery and boldness of his crews, or to prevent anyone from saying he couldn't have won if the enemy hadn't been asleep, but since he later attacked a sleeping enemy, it would seem that he did it to draw the Angevins out to his prepared position. It would've been difficult for him to attack in the confines of the harbor, and he would have lost the element of surprise anyway. Also, beached galleys were almost impossible to defeat in close combat, as they could be continually reinforced from shore.

The Angevin crews rushed to launch their galleys, and they moved out in a disorganized manner. Roger first used his Catalan archers, then closed for hand-to-hand combat. Cornut was killed by Roger in single combat when he boarded Roger's flagship, but Bonvin broke through the line with some galleys and escaped. About 10 galleys were captured.

The battle marked the first victory of De Lauria’s career, in which he would emerge as perhaps the greatest admiral of the medieval era. The following year, Roger then drew Charles of Salerno out of Naples and destroyed his fleet, taking the prince and 42 vessels.

[Ennath]

July 9, 1863
Surrender of Port Hudson, Part 1

In the spring and early summer of 1862, the Union advanced its control of the Mississippi from both the north and the south, taking New Orleans and Memphis. To make sure it could continue to use the middle section of the river, the South fortified positions at both Vicksburg, Mississippi and Port Hudson, Louisiana. In May 1863, Union land and naval forces began a campaign they hoped would give them control of the full length of the Mississippi River. One army under Maj. Gen. Ulysses Grant began operations against Vicksburg at the northern end of the stretch of the river still in Confederate hands while another army under Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Banks attacked Port Hudson, which stood at the southern end.

Port Hudson was sited on an 80’ high bluff on the east bank above a hairpin turn in the Mississippi 25 miles upriver from Baton Rouge. The hills and ridges around the town represented extremely rough terrain, a maze of deep, forested ravines, swamps, and cane brakes giving the effect of a natural fortress. The town was a port for shipping cotton and sugar downriver from the surrounding area. Despite its importance, the city consisted of a few buildings and 200 people by the start of the war. In 1862, a railroad was constructed to the town of Clinton, 19 miles to the northeast, but by 1863 it was run down, the track consisting of strips of iron nailed flat to rotten ties. The entire rolling stock consisted of one locomotive, one passenger car, and six box and flat cars. This train could only accommodate a few hundred troops at the most and was inadequate for hauling heavy guns and their ammunition. This lack of transport independent of the river would limit the defensibility of Port Hudson.

Only 1500 men were left to construct defense after troops were transferred to Kentucky in the summer of 1862. There was a 42-pounder smoothbore, manned by sailors from the sunken CSS Arkansas and 3 32-pounders from the wreck of the USS Sumter. On August 29, Brig. Gen. William Beall took command.

On that same day, the Union Navy began testing the defenses. The improvised gunboat Anglo-American was hit several times before rejoining the main fleet. On September 7, two vessels bombarded the rebel fort and the Essex received significant damage. Admiral Porter reported 35-40 heavy guns on the bluffs, a considerable exaggeration. The formidable reputation the position received provided a respite. During this time, Beall expanded the fortifications, delayed by inadequate communications. Confederate bureaucracy made it difficult for Garrison Provost Marshal John Miller to construct a logistical system of warehouses and transports to supply the garrison. The use of earthworks for fortification, which required unending labor to maintain and were unhealthful to live in, also contributed to the poor health of the garrison. Beall sent a request to Jefferson Davis to impose martial law in the region of Port Hudson for the purpose of commandeering more resources for construction, but Davis denied this.

Lincoln's new commander of the Gulf, Nathaniel Banks arrived in New Orleans on December 14, 1862, with the 31,000 men of his expedition. The former commander, Benjamin Butler left for Massachusetts on December 24, but his troops remained behind. This effectively more than doubled Union troop strength in the gulf, and Banks put them to immediate use to reoccupy Baton Rouge on December 17.

The Confederate command reacted to this increased Union commitment by sending a newly promoted major general to take command of Port Hudson. Major General Franklin Gardner arrived at his post on December 27. Upon taking command he reorganized the defenses, concentrating the fields of fire of the heavy guns and setting up more earthworks using packed earth and sod rather than the traditional gabions or sandbags. Lacking an adequate engineering staff, he expanded his planners by promoting Private Henry Glinder, who had formerly been a member of the Coast Survey, to first lieutenant of engineers. He also increased the efficiency of the supply and storage operations, along with building protected roads within the defense system to speed the movement of troops to threatened positions. His energy made him popular with his troops, and improved garrison morale. Despite the changes, Colonel Charles Fauntleroy, inspector-general for the department, criticized the fortifications for containing excessive numbers of civilians, badly placed magazines, poor transport and storage of grain, and no system for paying the troops on time.

As Gardner strengthened his command, and gathered reinforcements from Vicksburg, Banks dithered in New Orleans. He was a “Political General” and spent much time reorganizing the Union administration and establishing a more relaxed civil government to placate former Confederate backers in the city. This lack of military zeal was noted by his officers. The Union leader most offended by this apparent inertia was Admiral Farragut. Although Banks reluctantly agreed to move against Port Hudson, his slow progress and increased rebel activity on the Mississippi in the area of Port Hudson caused Farragut’s patience to run out. In March 1863, Farragut prepared to confront Port Hudson without army support.

Farragut had gathered his attack force by March 13. It contained 3 sloops, a paddle frigate, and 3 gunboats. He made elaborate preparations for a night attack, such as had occurred below New Orleans, including the bringing up of 6 mortar rafts, but did not make the same systematic survey beforehand.

The Confederates had noticed the increased naval activity downriver and were ready. They now had over 20 guns covering the river, including one equipped for heated shot. Other preparations included preparing piles of pine wood to be ignited to illuminate the river for night action, and observation posts near the river to fire rockets to warn of the approach of enemy vessels. The first of these rockets was fired at 11:20 PM on March 14, at the approach of Farragut’s fleet. The fleet moved steadily upriver, beginning a general exchange of fire. The ships hugged the shorelines of the bluffs in order to avoid shoals on the western shore, making it difficult for some of the defending guns to depress enough to hit them. Blinded by smoke, the sloop Hartfordand gunboat Albatross ran aground; they managed to extricate themselves by 12:45 AM. Next in the line, the sloop Richmondand gunboat Genesee were damaged; the Richmond’s boiler was damaged, causing the ships to drift back downriver. The sloop Monongahelaand gunboatKineo were next; they also ran aground and had their engines damaged, also drifting away. Last was the paddle frigate Mississippi, which was riddled with fire, including hot shot. With fires raging, the order was given to abandon ship. At 5:05 AM, the drifting ship exploded.

Though Hartford and Albatross passed upriver to blockade the Red River, General Gardner and the Port Hudson garrison regarded the battle as a victory. They had lost only 3 dead and 22 wounded, compared to the 78 killed or missing and 35 wounded on the Union fleet. The blockade of the Red River also had little effect on the strength of the Port Hudson position.

After the naval attack, Banks retreated the 17,000 troops he had intended as a diversion back to Baton Rouge. The lack of an attack against Port Hudson, and a powerful rainstorm during the retreat lowered Union morale. Other than sporadic naval bombardments against Port Hudson, Banks busied himself with minor expeditions against Major General Taylor in western Louisiana. What finally brought him to attack Port Hudson was the prospect of reinforcements from Grant’s army arrayed against Vicksburg, and word that a significant part of the Port Hudson garrison had been sent there.

On May 11, the 3rd Louisiana Native Guards, one of Butler’s black regiments, began building bridges to support the movement of Banks’ forces against Port Hudson. Leading the advance was the cavalry brigade of Benjamin Grierson, which had joined Banks’ forces on May 2 after their great raid through Mississippi. The entire advance involved a pincer movement with 3 divisions advancing from the northwest from Bayou Sara meeting 2 divisions advancing from the south from Baton Rouge. The meeting of the two groups would surround Port Hudson. One of Banks' lead divisions from Baton Rouge encountered Confederates on May 21 at the Battle of Plains Store. The Confederates were driven back, and by May 22, Banks' forces, which increased in strength from 30,000 to 40,000 men as the operation progressed, had completed an investment of the Port Hudson defenses. Banks hoped to overrun the entrenchments quickly, then take his army northward to assist Grant at Vicksburg.

General Gardner chose to reinforce the picket lines shielding the Confederate grain mill and support shops of the areas near Little Sandy Creek because he did not consider a siege probable, and had not fortified that perimeter. Other Confederate troops remained outside the fortifications, consisting of 1200 troops under the command of Colonel John Logan. These represented all of Gardner’s cavalry, the 9th Louisiana Battalion, Partisan Rangers, and 2 guns. These troops slowed the encirclement of Banks troops, and prevented them from discovering the weaknesses in the defenses. Due to these delays, the infantry assault was scheduled for May 27, 5 days after the encirclement and time enough for Gardner to complete the defenses. He also had sufficient time to move artillery from the river side of the fort to the east side fronting the Federal forces.

[Ennath]

July 9, 1863
Surrender of Port Hudson, Part 2

Many of Bank’s commanders were opposed to assaulting the fortifications, but Banks wanted to end the siege as quickly as possible in order to support Grant and he felt that his 30,000 troops would easily overwhelm the 7500 defenders. Four attacks groups were organized under generals Godfrey Weitzel, Cuvier Grover, Christopher Augur, and Thomas Sherman. Banks did not choose a specific time for his intended simultaneous assault, ordering his commanders to “…commence at the earliest hour practicable.” The effect of this was to break up the attack, with generals Weitzel and Grover attacking on the north and northeast sides of the fort at dawn, and generals Augur and Sherman attacking on the east and southeast sides at noon.

The morning attack was caught in a crossfire from 3 defensive positions and held in place by dense vegetation, steep-sided ravines and obstacles placed by the defenders. Losses were heavy. A hurried attack by black troops to try and relieve the pressure failed, though the courage shown in the assault did much to dissipate the belief that black troops were unreliable under fire. By noon, the northern assaults were over.

While the infantry attacks raged in the north, Sherman conducted a steady bombardment of the rebel works and battery positions, supported by sharpshooters aiming for Confederate gun crews. This effort had some success, but Banks, upon hearing no rifle fire from the Union center, visited Sherman’s headquarters and threatened to relieve him of command unless he advanced his troops. Sherman then began the attack on the eastern edge of the Port Hudson works at about 2 PM. These attacks had fewer natural obstacles to contend with, but faced stronger fortifications. Few attackers made it closer than 70 yards from the defenses.

The successful defense brought a renewed confidence to Gardner and his garrison. Learning from his experience, Gardner organized a more methodical defense. This involved dividing the fortifications into a network of defense zones, with an engineering officer in charge of strengthening the defense in each area. For the most part this involved once again charting the best cross fire for artillery positions, improving firepower concentrations, and digging protective pits to house artillery when not in use, to protect them from enemy bombardment. Unexploded 13” mortar shells were converted into land mines. These moves strengthened the defense, but could not make up for the fact that the garrison was short of everything except powder. The food shortage was a drag on morale, and resulted in a significant level of desertion.

On the Union side, Banks was determined to continue the siege in view of the fact that his political as well as military career would be destroyed by a withdrawal to Baton Rouge. The resources of his entire command were called into play, and men and material poured into the encirclement. Nine additional regiments appeared in the lines by June 1; 89 field guns were brought into action, and naval guns from the USS Richmond were added to the siege guns bearing on the fortress.

The second assault began with a sustained shelling of the Confederate works beginning at 11:15 AM on June 13, lasting an hour. Banks then sent a message to Gardner demanding surrender. Gardner declined. Banks continued the bombardment for the night, but only gave the order for what was to be a simultaneous three prong infantry attack at 1 AM on June 14. The attack finally began at 3:30, but the lack of any agreed upon plan, and a heavy fog disordered the attack as it began. Grover's column struck the Confederate line at Fort Desperate before the others, and the same formidable terrain combined with the enhanced Confederate defense stopped the attacks outside the rebel works. Auger's demonstration at the center arrived after the main attack had failed, and the attack on the southern end of the line was made after daylight, and stood little chance as a result. The infantry attack cost 1792 casualties against 47 rebel. After this, the actions against Port Hudson were reduced to bombardment and siege.

The day after the last infantry assault, Banks assembled some of his troops at the corps headquarters and thanked them for their previous efforts. He also asked for volunteers for a special attack group to be trained intensively to breach the Confederate trench line. His speech generated little enthusiasm, but a unit of 1036 men was formed and removed to a training camp in the rear to prepare for the attack.

Regular siege operations were also reorganized under the command of a new chief engineer, Captain John Palfrey. He concentrated the efforts of the siege on three areas of the fortifications, Fort Desperate, the Priest Cap, and the Citadel, the southernmost bastion of the fortifications, nicknamed by Union forces as “the Devil’s Elbow”. These efforts did not involve infantry rushing the trenches, but a siege technique called sapping, or constructing a series of zigzag trenches, fortified batteries, and sharpshooter positions intended to isolate and suppress individual defensive bastions.

The Citadel was to be reduced by a powerful siege battery constructed on a hill just to the south. Union batteries were also constructed on the west bank of the Mississippi opposite Port Hudson, completely surrounding it with Union artillery. Union forces also made raids on trenches and batteries, to enhance their own trench lines or disable enemy batteries. On June 26, a general bombardment began, disabling or suppressing what remained of the Confederate artillery. Along with the trenching operations, the Federals also constructed three mines underneath the opposing works, two of them directed against the Priest Cap, and one under the Citadel. After the mines were finished, chambers at the end of the mines would be loaded with powder, and exploded under the Confederate works, destroying them, and blowing gaps in the trench lines. At this point an infantry assault would be launched, hopefully overrunning the entire fortification.

The Confederates responded to the siege techniques with increased efforts of their own. The grist mill at Fort Desperate had been destroyed by shelling. It was replaced by using the locomotive from the defunct railroad to power millstones, providing a steady supply of cornmeal for the garrison. Expended shells were salvaged for reuse, shot being recast for making new cartridges, artillery rounds refused and distributed to artillery of the same caliber, or reused as mines and grenades. Additional obstacles, mines, and bunkers were added to the threatened bastions, making them more difficult to bombard, infiltrate, or overrun. Additional field artillery and infantry were added to the defense of Fort Desperate, making sapping in that area more costly.

Various raids against Union saps were also conducted. These were annoying to Banks, but could not break the siege. On July 3, a countermine was exploded near one of the Federal mines under the Priest Cap. This collapsed the mine, but surprisingly did not cause any Union casualties. The defenders could not compensate for the constant losses of personnel resulting from starvation, disease, particularly scurvy, dysentery, and malaria, sniping, shell fragments, sunstroke and desertion. The use of mule meat and rats as rations could not maintain the health of the soldiers left standing, and was a further drain on morale.

By early July, the Confederates had exhausted practically all of their food supplies and ammunition, and fighting and disease had greatly reduced the number of men able to defend the trenches. When Gardner learned that Vicksburg had surrendered on July 4, he realized that his situation was hopeless and that nothing could be gained by continuing. The terms of surrender were negotiated, and on July 9, 1863, the Confederates laid down their weapons, ending 48 days of continuous fighting and the longest siege ever conducted on US soil.

Both sides had suffered heavy casualties: 4700-5200 Federals were casualties, and an additional 4000 fell prey to disease or sunstroke; Gardner's forces suffered around 900 casualties, from battle losses and disease. Banks granted lenient terms to the garrison. The enlisted men were paroled to their homes, with transport for the sick and lightly wounded. Seriously sick or wounded were placed under Union medical care. Since the terms of the parole were not in agreement with parole conditions acceptable to the Union and Confederate armies then current, the Confederate Army furloughed the returned troops until September 15, 1863, then returned them to duty. This outraged some leaders of the Union army, but General Halleck, in charge of US armies, admitted the paroles were in error.

The surrender gave the Union complete control of the Mississippi River and its major tributaries, severing communications and trade between the eastern and western states of the Confederacy.

[Ennath]

July 10, 1690
Battle of Beachy Head

The deposed King James II was campaigning in Ireland as a first step in an unsuccessful attempt to regain his throne. In August 1689 Marshal Frederick Schomberg had been sent from England to bolster the forces loyal to King William III, but his army had stalled through the winter of 1689–90, suffering from sickness and desertion. As early as January 1690 it was clear to William that he would have to sail personally to Ireland, with substantial reinforcements, in order to salvage the situation.

The main Allied fleet under Admiral Arthur Herbert, Earl of Torrington was stationed in the English Channel; a substantial part of the fleet was in the Mediterranean under Vice Admiral Henry Killigrew, which was to neutralize the French Toulon squadron. Sir Cloudesley Shovell remained in the Irish Sea, but his squadron was much too small to stop the French controlling these waters if they chose to do so. However, the French decided not to use their fleet as a subsidiary to the Irish campaign; King Louis XIV instead directed his navy against Torrington in the Channel. Although 6000 French troops under the command of the Comte de Lauzun were successfully ferried across to Ireland to aid James in March, the French fleet under Anne Hilarion, Comte de Tourville returned to Brest on May 1 and remained inactive during May and June whilst the grand fleet was assembling.

French inaction provided William with the opportunity he desired. On June 21, he embarked his forces at Chester on 280 transports, escorted by only 6 men-of-war commanded by Shovell. On the 24th, unmolested by the French fleet, William landed in Carrickfergus with 15,000 men for his Irish campaign, much to the consternation of James’ chief lieutenant in Ireland the Earl of Tyrconnel, who later wrote “The want of a squadron of French men-of-war in St George's Channel has been our ruin ...”

After evading Killigrew off Cadiz, the Marquis de Chateau-Renault's Toulon squadron joined Tourville on June 21. Tourville, now commanding the combined Brest and Mediterranean fleets totaling 75 ships of the line and 23 fireships, sailed on June 23 into the Channel; by June 30, the French were off the Lizard. Torrington sailed from the Nore already convinced the French would be stronger. Torrington's fleet reached the Isle of Wight and was joined by a Dutch squadron under the command of Cornelis Evertsen. Much of the Royal Navy had been diverted to protect maritime commerce from privateers, and the Allied fleet now only had 56 English and Dutch ships of the line, totaling 4153 guns, to Tourville's fleet of 4600 guns.

On July 5, a frigate announced the arrival of the enemy, and soon the French were sighted. A council of war was held. Unable to proceed to the westward to link up with Shovell and Killigrew (who was on his way home), Torrington announced his intention of retreating before the superior French fleet to the Straits of Dover, believing the loss of the “fleet in being” would strategically be too great. The government was so informed by express.

In King William's absence, Queen Mary and her advisors - the Council of Nine - hastened to take measures for the defense of the country. Some, including Admiral Edward Russell, thought that it was advisable to fight, unconvinced that the French were as strong as Torrington reported, and considered that only the admiral's pessimism, defeatism or treachery could account for his reports. As the two fleets moved slowly up the channel (with Torrington keeping carefully out of range), Russell drafted the order to fight. The orders reached the admiral on July 9 whilst he was off Beachy Head. Torrington now had no choice but to obey orders and fight.

The following day, July 10, off Beachy Head near Eastbourne Torrington advanced towards the French in line of battle. He placed the Dutch white squadron with 21 ships in the van. Torrington himself was in the center red squadron; the rear blue squadron, commanded by Vice-Admiral Ralph Delaval, comprised both English and Dutch ships. The French Admiral also divided his force into the customary three squadrons, with white and blue, white, and blue pennants respectively. Tourville, aboard the Soleil Royal, commanded the center, white squadron. The blue squadron in the French van was commanded by Chateau-Renault; Victor-Marie d'Estrées commanded the rear white squadron.

At about 8:00 AM, the Allies, being to windward, ran down together in line abreast, elongated in order to cover the whole French fleet and prevent doubling at either end. The Dutch bore down on the leading French squadron to engage on a parallel course, but left the leading division of Château-Renault's squadron unmarked. This division cut across Evertsen's path and, doubling on the Dutch squadron, was able to inflict heavy losses.

Vice Admiral Ashby of the red squadron failed to help the Dutch, as the Marquis de Villette succeeded in tacking ahead, placing Ashby between two fires. When Torrington brought the remainder of the red squadron into action, he found difficulty in getting close enough because of the sag in the French line, and came no closer than twice gunshot range. Admiral Tourville, finding himself with few adversaries in the center, pushed forward his own leading ships which Torrington's dispositions had left without opponents, further strengthening the French attack in the van. The Dutch were now opposed by the whole of Château-Renault's squadron, and the van and center divisions of Tourville's squadron.

Delaval's greatly outnumbered blue squadron fought a desperate battle with d'Estrées in the rear. Evertsen in the van, however, having lost his second-in-command and many other officers, was forced to withdraw. The Dutch had maintained the unequal contest with very little assistance from the rest of the Allied fleet; he left 2 Dutch ships sunk, 1 dismasted vessel captured, and many badly damaged. Outmatched, Torrington ended the battle late in the afternoon, taking advantage of the tide and the drop in wind; while his ships dropped anchor, the French – who were not sufficiently alert – were carried off by the current and out of cannon range.

The 8-hour battle was a complete victory for the French, but was far from decisive. When the tide changed at 9:00 PM, the Allies weighed anchor. Tourville pursued, but instead of ordering a general chase, he maintained a strict line-of-battle, reducing the speed of the fleet to that of the slower ships. Nevertheless, Torrington scuttled 7 more badly-damaged Dutch ships and 1 English ship to avoid capture before gaining the refuge of the Thames; as soon as he was in the safety of the river, he ordered all the navigation buoys removed, making any attempt to follow him too dangerous.

The defeat of Beachy Head caused panic in England. Tourville had temporary command of the Channel; it seemed that the French could prevent William from returning from Ireland and land an invading army in England, a fear compounded by news from the Continent of French victory at the Battle of Fleurus on July 1. In the prevailing atmosphere of paranoia, no one attributed the defeat to overwhelming odds. The Earl of Nottingham, one of those who insisted on battle, accused Torrington of treachery.

Meanwhile, there was good news from Ireland, where William had won a decisive victory at the Boyne. James fled to France, but appeals to the land-minded Louis XIV for an invasion of Ireland were ignored. Tourville anchored off Le Havre to refit and land his sick. The French had failed to exploit their success. To the fury of Navy Minister Seignelay, the total result of Tourville's victory was the symbolic and futile burning of the English coastal town of Teignmouth in July, and he was relieved of command.

The English squadrons now rallied to the main fleet. By the end of August the Allies had 90 vessels cruising the Channel - temporary French control had come to an end. Torrington, however, had been sent to the Tower of London to await a court martial at Chatham. The substance of the charge was that he had withdrawn and kept back, and had not done his utmost to damage the enemy and to assist his own and the Dutch ships. Torrington blamed the defeat on the lack of preparations and intelligence – he had not been informed that the Brest fleet had been reinforced with the Toulon squadron. He also contended that the Dutch had engaged too early, before they had reached the head of the French line. To the outrage and astonishment of William and his ministers – and the delight of the English seamen who, rightly or wrongly, regarded him as a political sacrifice to the Dutch – the court acquitted him. Torrington took up his seat in the House of Lords, but William refused to see him and dismissed him from the service on December 22.

One of the effects of the defeat was a great naval building program in England. As there were no immediate funds available, in 1694 a private institution, the Bank of England, was set up to supply money to the King.

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July 11, 1915
Sinking of the Königsberg

The light cruiser Königsberg displaced 3,814 tons full load. Her two triple-expansion engines provided a top speed of 24 knots and she had a crew of 14 officers and 308 enlisted men. The ship was armed with ten 4.1” L/45 guns in single mounts, along with ten 52mm guns and a pair of 18” torpedo tubes. She was protected by an armored deck.

At the outbreak of World War I, Königsberg, under Cmdr. Max Looff, was in East Africa and was ordered to attack British commerce around the entrance to the Red Sea. A shortage of coal hampered Looff's efforts; the British prevented his collier König from leaving Dar es Salaam and purchased all of the coal in Portuguese East Africa to deny it to the Germans. The cruiser took her first prize off Oman on August 6, 1914, taking another a few days later, with a supply of coal.

In the meantime, British warships bombarded Dar es Salaam and destroyed the German wireless station there. By this time, Königsberg  '​s engines were in need of a thorough overhaul, and Looff needed to find a secluded area where the work could be completed. He settled on the Rufiji Delta, which had recently been plotted by the survey ship Möwe. On September 3, at high tide, Königsberg passed over the bar at the mouth of the Rufiji and slowly made her way upriver. Coast watchers were stationed at the mouth of the river and telegraph lines run to ensure the Germans would not be surprised by British ships searching for them. Scouts observed a British warship patrolling the coast for 2 weeks. It was the old 3rd Class protected cruiser Pegasus. He deduced that the ship would likely have to coal at Zanzibar on Sundays, and so Looff decided to attack the ship in port before he began his overhaul.

On September 20, Königsberg arrived off Zanzibar. She opened fire at 0510; within 45 minutes, Pegasus caught fire, rolled over to port, and sank. Crewmen aboard Pegasus had raised a white flag, but it could not be seen aboard Königsberg due to the heavy smoke. Pegasus '​s crew suffered 38 dead and 55 wounded, while Königsberg was undamaged and had no casualties. Afterward, Königsberg bombarded the wireless station and dumped barrels filled with sand into the harbor entrance to simulate mines. While leaving the harbor, Königsberg spotted the picket ship Helmut and sank her with three shells.

The cruiser then returned to the Rufiji River to begin overhauling her engines; the parts would need to be transported overland to the shipyard in Dar es Salaam where they could be rebuilt. While moored at the town of Salale, the ship was heavily camouflaged and defensive arrangements, including landing soldiers and field guns along with the network of coast watchers and telegraph lines, were erected. An improvised minefield was also laid in the delta to keep the British ships from entering the river.

Concerned with the threat Königsberg posed to troop transports from India, the British reinforced the ships tasked with tracking down the elusive German raider, and placed the ships under the command of Captain Sidney Drury-Lowe. The sinking of Pegasus convinced the British that Königsberg must still be in German East Africa. On October 19, the cruiser Chatham found the German East Africa Line ship Präsident at Lindi. A boarding party searched the ship and discovered documents indicating she had supplied Königsberg with coal the previous month. On the 30th, the cruiser Dartmouth located Königsberg and its supply ship Somali in the Delta. Chatham, Dartmouth, and Weymouth blockaded the Rufiji to ensure Königsberg could not escape.

On November 3, the British began a long-range bombardment. Königsberg was protected by the thick mangrove swamps, which concealed the ship and offered a degree of cover, especially while the British ships remained outside the river. A collier, Newbridge, was converted into a blockship to be sunk in the main channel to prevent Königsberg '​s escape. Despite heavy German fire from both sides of the river, the British successfully sank Newbridge across one of the delta mouths on November 10, though the German raider could still put to sea via other channels. Looff decided to move his ship further upriver. In doing so, his ship would occupy a disproportionate number of British vessels that could otherwise be employed elsewhere.

A civilian pilot, Denis Cutler of Durban, South Africa, was commissioned into the Royal Marines and convinced to make his private Curtiss seaplane available for the Navy, which also requisitioned the passenger ship KinfaunsCastle to serve as a makeshift tender for Cutler's aircraft. On his first attempt to locate the cruiser, Cutler, who did not have a compass, got lost and was forced to land on a desert island. On his second flight, he successfully located Königsberg, and a third flight with a Royal Navy observer confirmed his observations. His radiator was damaged on the flight and he was grounded until replacement parts could be brought from Mombasa. A pair of Royal Naval Air Service Sopwiths were brought up with the intention of scouting and even bombing the ship. They soon fell apart in the tropical conditions. A trio of Short seaplanes fared a little better, though they too were quickly disabled by the conditions.

Also in November, the British sought to use the pre-dreadnought Goliath, but the shallow waters prevented her from getting within range. In December, Lieutenant Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck requested as many crew members as possible for his land campaign; a total of 220 men were left aboard to keep the ship in fighting condition. This was not enough, however, to permit her to go to sea. Königsberg moved further upriver on December 18. On the 23rd, the British sent a pair of shallow-draft ships up the delta. They hit Somali once before German defensive fire forced them to retreat.

In the meantime, conditions were deteriorating on Königsberg. There were shortages of coal, ammunition, food, and medical supplies. Although safe from the British, the crew was ravaged by malaria and other tropical ailments. Generally cut off from the outside world, morale fell. However, the situation was marginally improved with a scheme to resupply the ship and give her a fighting chance to return home. A captured British merchant ship was renamed Kronborg. It was given a Danish flag, papers, and a crew of German sailors selected for their ability to speak Danish. It was then packed with coal, field guns, ammunition, small arms, and other supplies. As the freighter approached East Africa, Königsberg prepared to sortie to meet the ship and attempt to break out and return to Germany. Instead, Königsberg was trapped in the river by two cruisers and several smaller vessels. Kronborg was intercepted by the alerted Hyacinth, which chased her to Manza Bay. The trapped ship was forced aground and set on fire, but the Germans salvaged much of her cargo and put it to use later in the land campaign.

Finally, in April 1915, the Admiralty agreed to a plan submitted by Drury-Lowe the previous November, which envisioned attacking the German cruiser with shallow-draft monitors, capable of navigating the Rufiji River. Two monitors, Mersey and Severn, armed with a pair of 6” guns each, were brought from Britain. Königsberg had in the meantime been moved a third time, even further upriver. On July 6, the two monitors crossed the outer sandbar and steamed upriver, despite heavy fire from German positions on the banks. They stopped at a point they thought to be 10,000 yards from Königsberg, in range of their own guns but farther than the smaller German guns could reply. Aircraft were used to spot the fall of shot. The monitors' navigation was faulty, however, and after opening fire, they found themselves to be within range of Königsberg '​s guns. She hit Mersey twice in the engagement; one shell disabled the forward 6-inch gun, and another holed the ship below the waterline. Königsberg was hit 4 times in return, 1 shell striking beneath the waterline and causing some flooding. After 3 hours, both British ships withdrew.

They returned again on July 11, after having repaired their damage. The monitors again ran the gauntlet of fire from the banks and conducted a 5-hour bombardment. Königsberg opened fire at 12:12, initially with 4 guns, but only 2 guns remained in action after 12:44, and 1 gun after 12:53. The two monitors did not respond until 12:31, once they had been anchored into their firing positions, and scored several serious hits that caused a major fire and inflicted heavy casualties. By 1:40, Königsberg had run low on ammunition and her gun crews had suffered very heavy casualties, so Looff ordered the crew to abandon ship and to drop the breech blocks for the guns overboard to disable them. Two torpedo warheads were detonated in the ship's bow to scuttle her; the ship rolled over slightly to starboard and sank up to the upper deck with her flags still flying; 19 men had been killed in the battle, with another 45 wounded, including Looff.

Later that day, the crew returned to haul down the ship's flag and gave three cheers for the Kaiser. The guns and other usable equipment were salvaged from the wreck starting the following day. The guns were converted into field artillery pieces and coastal guns; together with the ship's crew, they went on to see service in the land campaign. In 1919, after the war, the men took part in a parade through the Brandenburg Gate to celebrate them and their ship.

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July 12, 1857
Battle of Fatehpur

Major Sydenham Renaud had been detached from General Neill’s command to attempt a relief of Cawnpore with 400 Europeans, 300 Ferozepore Sikhs, 120 native irregular cavalry and two 9-pounder guns, but was halted by Henry Havelock, who assumed command. He began pacifying the area around Fatehpur. Suspected mutineers and supporters were summarily hanged. Orders from Havelock put a stop to this; no more villages were to be burned unless actually occupied by mutinous troops, and Renaud to conserve his Europeans as much as possible. By liberal use of secret service funds, Havelock had learned that the enemy was approaching.

The Nana Sahib, after the massacre at Cawnpore, determined to march the 45 miles to Fatehpur to attack Renaud’s small force with an army estimated at 35,000 regulars, plus a mass of fresh native levies and 12 guns looted from the Cawnpore arsenal. Thus, in spite of protests from his medical officers, Havelock pushed his force hard to link up with Renaud. Havelock had 600 men of 64th Foot, 600 from 78th Highlanders, 500 Madras Fusiliers, a company of artillery, Brayser’s Sikhs and 20 mounted European Volunteers. This link-up occurred just after midnight on July 11. The combined force, just over 1500 strong, moved on to just short of Fatehpur, where they made camp on the evening of the 12th. Shortly thereafter, Colonel Fraser-Tytler, the assistant quartermaster general came galloping into camp with news that the enemy was close; he had been scouting ahead and met 2 spies from Lucknow, who informed him that the rebels were encamped at Fatehpur. Realizing they had been spotted, and believing that they had only Renaud’s small force to deal with, the rebels began an immediate advance. Just as the spies were reporting to Havelock, a 24-pounder round landed just 200 yards from where the general was standing.

The British camp was quickly roused and stood to. Havelock’s force had marched all day and had not eaten, so he maintained only 100 Enfield-armed riflemen of the 64th in an advanced copse. The mutineers were not deterred and kept up the pressure, so Havelock determined on a general action. Fatehpur was a strong position; the Grand Trunk road ran through the village and was the only means of access as the ground on either side was flooded. The village consisted of walled gardens surrounding strongly-built houses. In front of the village were hillocks and mango groves occupied by the rebels.

Havelock placed his 8 guns on either side of the road, guarded by 100 riflemen. The rest of the infantry were formed into quarter columns and advanced on either side of the road, covered by skirmishers. The cavalry advanced on harder ground out on the flanks. The British artillery quickly got the better of the duel with the rebel guns, silencing several pieces. A rebel advance on the guns was halted at 650 yards; the rebel infantry bolted and the supporting horse and guns were pounded by artillery until they retired, leaving the artillery to be captured by the British. The British guns then moved up to almost point-blank range.

Meanwhile, Renaud’s troops took a hillock and pushed on through the swamp, while the regulars and Sikhs drove the enemy back toward the village.

The mutineers could have made a fierce fight of it in the walled houses, but they had had enough. The British pushed on through the village against minimal opposition and made camp on the Cawnpore side. The battle had lasted less than half an hour. The fire of the Enfield, knocking men over at long ranges, had clearly surprised and demoralized the sepoys. Due to heat, exhaustion and the lack of an adequate cavalry force – the irregular horse were held not to have distinguished themselves and were disbanded two days later – there was no pursuit. A store of wine and beer was found in a merchant’s storehouse; the effect on tired men under a hot sun caused more casualties than the battle had. The advance toward Cawnpore resumed two days later

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July 13, 1643
Battle of Roundway Down

Despite the marginal victory at Lansdown Hill, Lord Hertford's Royalist army was in low spirits owing to heavy casualties, the death of Sir Bevil Grenville and serious injuries to Sir Ralph Hopton. Most of the Royalist cavalry had scattered during the battle and the army was short of supplies. After regrouping, the Royalists marched towards Oxford, halting for two days at Chippenham in Wiltshire. Meanwhile, Sir William Waller summoned reinforcements from Bristol and set off in pursuit of the battered Royalist army with a force of nearly 5000 men.

On July 9, Waller's advance guard of cavalry caught up with the Royalists near Devizes. Prince Maurice's cavalry and Lord Mohun's regiment of foot fought a rearguard action at the village of Rowde that held off the Parliamentarians and gave the Royalist infantry time to get into the town. At a council of war on the 10th, Sir Ralph Hopton agreed to defend Devizes with the infantry and artillery while Prince Maurice rode to Oxford for reinforcements with Lord Hertford and Lord Carnarvon. Maurice broke out at midnight with 300 cavalry, riding south-east to evade Waller's patrols before turning north for Oxford.

Prince Maurice and his companions rode the 45 miles to Oxford in a single night. When they arrived, they found that most of the Oxford army was in the Midlands with Prince Rupert and the Queen. A convoy of gunpowder and ammunition had been sent to resupply the Western Army after Lansdown under the command of the Earl of Crawford, but troopers of Waller's own regiment of horse ambushed the convoy on July 11. The Royalist cavalry escort was scattered and the convoy captured. While no infantry could be spared from Oxford, a relief force of 1500 horse was detached under the command of Lord Wilmot, supported by Sir John Byron and the Earl of Crawford. Prince Maurice, Lord Carnarvon and the 300 horse that had ridden from Devizes also joined the column. Two brass field guns and a supply of powder and ammunition were requisitioned. The relief force rendezvoused at Marlborough and approached Devizes on the afternoon of July 13.

Meanwhile, Waller had deployed his forces on the eastern side Devizes and set up a battery on Coatefield Hill. Hopton began negotiations on July 11, which gained a day's respite, but Waller suspected that he was playing for time and proceeded with preparations for an assault. Although short of powder and ammunition, the Royalists set up their artillery in the remains of Devizes Castle, barricaded the streets with tree trunks and carts, and lined the hedgerows and embankments around the town with musketeers. The Parliamentarians attacked on the morning of July 12, supported by artillery fire from Coatefield Hill. The Royalists resisted fiercely; although some of the outworks were overrun, the main Parliamentarian attack was repulsed.

Waller was planning further attacks when his scouts reported the approach of Wilmot's relief force during the morning of the 13th. Waller drew off his entire army and regrouped on Roundway Down to the north of Devizes, leaving a few troops to guard his artillery and baggage. The Parliamentarian army consisted of around 2500 foot and between 2500 and 3000 horse and dragoons, supported by 8 field guns. Waller deployed his troops conventionally, with 5 regiments of foot in the center, guarded by cavalry on each flank and artillery covering the gaps between. The Royalist relief force consisted of 1800 horse with no infantry. Wilmot hoped that Hopton would send out the 3000 Royalist foot in Devizes to support his cavalry, but Hopton was persuaded to delay by his officers, who suspected that Waller's withdrawal was a stratagem to tempt them to leave the town.

Wilmot deployed in three brigades. He personally led the brigade on the right while Sir John Byron commanded on the left. The Earl of Crawford kept a third brigade in reserve.

The battle began at about 3:00 PM on July 13. As the Royalists moved forward, a Parliamentarian advance party moved forward to harass them. Major Paul Smith of Wilmot's regiment led a Royalist counterattack, and the Parliamentarians were thrown back. Sir Arthur Heselrige on the Parliamentarian left wing advanced his formidable cuirassier regiment to support the fleeing troopers. Heselrige's troops were arrayed six deep in close order; his charge was met by Wilmot's brigade which advanced at a trot three deep in extended order. When the opposing ranks met, Wilmot's line overlapped Heselrige's and the Parliamentarians gave ground. Heselrige rallied his men for a second charge but seeing the second Royalist brigade ready to support Wilmot, the cuirassiers broke and fled.

With “Heselrige's Lobsters” routed, Waller advanced with the right wing of horse flanking his infantry. Byron's brigade charged Waller's horse, steadfastly ignoring the covering fire from the Parliamentarian foot and artillery. Byron ordered his troopers not to fire their pistols until they were among the Parliamentarian horse. Supported by Lord Crawford's reserve, Byron swept the Parliamentarian right wing from the field. The triumphant Royalists pursued the fleeing Parliamentarian cavalry, a number of whom were driven over the edge of a precipitous slope on the edge of Roundway Down.

The Parliamentarian infantry were left stranded. Their cavalry were routed but Waller remained on the field and formed the infantry into squares. For over an hour, the Parliamentarians fended off attacks by Wilmot's cavalry. The attacks became heavier as more Royalist horse returned to the field. When the 3000 Cornish infantry finally marched out of Devizes and advanced towards the battlefield, Waller ordered a retreat eastwards. The Parliamentarian infantry began to march off in good order but lost cohesion when Byron's men opened fire with captured cannon and advanced to attack. In the confusion, Waller and his mounted officers galloped away towards Bristol. The withdrawal became a rout as the Parliamentarian infantry ran for the wooded eastern slopes. Hundreds were cut down or taken prisoner, many dying in an area still known as Bloody Ditch at the foot of the hillside. All Waller's artillery, ammunition and baggage was taken. Parliament's entire Western Association army had been all but wiped out in the most sweeping victory of the civil wars.

With the Parliamentarian field army in the southwest destroyed, the Royalists were able to capture the port and major city of Bristol a few weeks later; this period of Royalist successes was referred to as the Royalist summer.