The Military History Thread

[Ennath]

February 27, 1881
Battle of Majuba Hill

After his check at Laing’s Nek on January 28, 1881 (see posting), Maj. Gen. Sir George Colley, British High Commissioner for South East Africa, prepared to move again toward Transvaal. substantial reinforcements were on the way to South Africa, but carried the disadvantage for Colley of bringing a senior general, Sir Frederick Roberts, to supersede him.

On February 7, Colley tried again, moving forward to the Ingogo River where he suffered another sharp reverse. On February 12 Brig. Gen. Sir Evelyn Wood arrived at Durban with regiments hurried over from India: the 15th Hussars, 2nd/60th Rifles and the 92nd Highlanders. Coming up with Colley, Wood persuaded him to stay put until the reinforcements from Britain arrived. Wood moved back to the Tugela River to organize the newly arriving troops.

Colley did not intend to comply with the compact he had made with Wood and on the night of February 26, he marched out, towards the Boer positions, with a small force of infantry: 22 officers and 627 men of 58th Regiment, 60th Rifles, 92nd Highlanders and the Royal Navy contingent. This small force moved towards the Boer camp which lay on the far side of Majuba Hill. 2 companies of the 2nd/60th were left as a picket at the base of Mount Imguela on the way to Majuba with a dismounted troop of the 15th Hussars and 2 more companies of infantry a little further along the road. Except for the Gordon Highlanders, most of these troops were inexperienced and their regiments had not seen action since the Crimean War. Colley brought no artillery. The British reached the top of Majuba Hill in the early morning and, exhausted, fell to the ground on the plateau that stretched the length of the oblong summit. Little was done to prepare a position, against the advice of several of his subordinates. The hill was not considered scaleable in any strength.

As dawn broke the Boers, camped to the Northeast on lower ground, were in consternation at seeing the British above them. In trepidation they awaited an attack on their camp, but Colley did nothing. Regaining their confidence, the Boers quickly formed a group of storming parties, led by Nicolas Smit, from an assortment of volunteers from various commandos, totaling at least 450 men, maybe more, to attack the hill. The Boers began to work their way up the several sides of Majuba, while older marksmen covered them, picking off any soldier who appeared on the skyline and pinning down the British force. As the Boers moved up the sides of Majuba, the small size of Colley’s force became apparent.

The British had not occupied the whole summit and the Boers were able to infiltrate to the top, bringing fire on the British troops from higher sections of the plateau. The Boer marksmen kept their enemy on the slopes at bay while groups crossed the open ground to attack Gordon's Knoll, where at 12:45, Commandant Ferreira’s men opened up a tremendous fire on the exposed knoll and captured it. British casualties mounted. There was little coordinated command. Lt. Ian Hamilton urged Colley to charge the Boer line, but the general procrastinated, saying “Wait, wait.”

Over the next hour, the Boers engaged at long range, refusing hand-to-hand combat action and picking off the British. The Boers were able to take advantage of the scrub and long grass which covered the hill, something that the British were not trained to do. When more Boers were seen encircling the mountain, the British infantry, suffering considerable loss, broke and fled from the top of the mountain, leaving a small group of 92nd Highlanders to be surrounded and captured.

Amidst great confusion and with casualties mounting, Colley attempted to order a fighting retreat, but was shot and killed by Boer marksmen. The rest of the British force fled down the rear slopes of Majuba, where more were hit by the Boer marksmen, who had lined the summit. An abortive rearguard action was staged by the 15th Hussars and 60th Rifles, who had marched from a support base at Mount Prospect, although this made little impact on the Boers. The troops rushed to the bottom of the hill, falling back on the picket companies which were themselves enveloped by the Boers, now mounted and in pursuit. Only a heavy bombardment from the Royal Artillery guns in the main camp stemmed the Boer advance. The battle was over. Of the small British force 283 became casualties. Boer casualties are not known but are likely to have
been trifling.

The British government of William Gladstone, was conciliatory as it realized that any further action would require substantial reinforcements, and it was likely that the war would be costly, messy and protracted. Unwilling to get bogged down in a distant war, the British government ordered a truce. Sir Evelyn Wood (Colley’s replacement) signed an armistice March 6, and subsequently a peace treaty was signed March 23, bringing the war to an official end. In the final peace treaty, the Pretoria Convention, the British agreed to complete Boer self-government under British suzerainty. The Boers accepted the Queen’s nominal rule and British control over external relations, African affairs and native districts. The Convention was signed on August 3, leading to the withdrawal of the last British troops. The Pretoria Convention was superseded in 1884 by the London Convention which provided for similar complete self-government, although still with British control of foreign relations. However, differing interpretations of the terms meant that relations continued to be poor and war again broke out in 1899.

[Ennath]

February 28, 1847
Battle of RioSacramento

In 1846, the US Army of the West occupied New Mexico on its way to California. Its next task was to reduce the state of Chihuahua. This task was entrusted to Col. Alexander Doniphan, to be supported by another column under Brig. Gen. John Wool. Doniphan began his march south on December 14, passing through the harsh desert called the Jornada del Muerto (Journey of Death), reaching Brazito, at the north edge of Chihuahua, on Christmas Day. Here they were suddenly attacked by a Mexican force, but with in an hour, the fight was over. At the cost of 8 wounded, the Americans, though outnumbered 2-1, forced the attackers to retreat with a loss of over 200 casualties. Two days later, El Paso fell without opposition.

The loss of El Paso was a blow to the government of Chihuahua. They had committed their best troops and been heavily defeated. Doniphan was reinforced and resupplied here and waited for news of Wool, to whom Doniphan was supposed to report. His force numbered 924 soldiers and 300 civilians. The states of Chihuahua and Durango were under arms to oppose him and the camp was largely surrounded by desert. Eventually, Doniphan learned that Wool had abandoned his march and that he was on his own. Nevertheless, he decided to press ahead.

On February 8, Doniphan’s force marched south, having destroyed all the captured munitions which could not be used by his own troops. Five influential citizens of El Paso were taken as hostages for the protection of US citizens left behind. Doniphan also organized an effective corps of traders and teamsters, numbering 150 men, well armed and having valuable possessions at stake in the trains.

On February 25, after crossing 65 miles of desert, they reached the Laguna de Encenillas; 700 Mexican soldiers were seen guarding the governor’s hacienda here, and a scouting party was sent out that night to ascertain more fully the strength of their position and numbers. This party consisted of 25 horsemen under Captain Reid. To avoid the sentinels that they felt to be likely on the roads, these men forded the lake itself in the night, though it was 3 miles wide and had been considered impassable. This daring feat was accomplished, and they cautiously approached the walls of the hacienda. Hindered by these walls from ascertaining what was within, they suddenly made a bold dash into the enclosure, and took it. They found several hundred inhabitants, but no soldiers. They had started out an hour before for the Sacramento River, where the enemy had a strongly fortified position, and were awaiting the approach of the Americans.

As the Mexicans were now so near, another scouting party of 8 officers was sent forward 9-10 miles. From a high peak, they had a full view with field-glasses of the Mexican position, so that their batteries could be counted and their force estimated. Col. Doniphan then made a plan for the march the next day, and on Sunday, the 28th of February, the whole force arrived in sight of the enemy, 4 miles distant.

The horsemen rode in front. In this order they approached the Mexican forces occupying the brow of a rocky hill between the river Sacramento and a deep, dry arroyo. Their position was fortified by 28 strong redoubts and entrenchments. Within these, according to the Mexican adjutant-general's report, which was captured after the battle, were 4220 men, commanded by Maj-Gen. Jose Heredia, aided by Gens. Conde, Ugarte of the Mexican cavalry, Justimane of the infantry, and Angel Trias of the artillery, who was also governor and leading the Chihuahua troops. The Mexicans were so confident in the superiority of their numbers and in the strength of their position, that they had provided strings and handcuffs with which to drive the Americans as prisoners to Mexico City.

Doniphan, fully aware of the odds, boldly advanced his troops along the main road toward the enemy’s front. Then turning to the right to avoid the range of the Mexican batteries, he crossed the arroyo and approached the position from the west, where the ascent of the hill was most narrow. As the baggage trains closely followed across the rocky arroyo, the general in charge of the 1200 Mexican cavalry charged, opening the battle. They were received by canister and repulsed. A Mexican battery which had been hidden by their movement now vigorously replied to the American artillery, which was rapidly discharging 25 rounds a minute. The artillery fight continued for 50 minutes, in which all available cannon in the earthworks joined. It was strange that so few men were injured by the Mexican fire, which did fearful execution among the wagons and animals. Conde was obliged to pull his cavalry back within the entrenchments.

Doniphan launched a vigorous attack on the redoubts in his front. Discovering a body of 300 lancers advancing upon his rear, he first dispatched the battalion of teamsters to check their approach, and then having already ordered a charge on the fortifications, his lines moved rapidly up the rising ground under the fire of 16 guns in the redoubts and the fort on Sacramento hill on the opposite side of the river. The Americans were within 500 yards of the works, when the 3 cavalry companies on the left were ordered to carry the center battery, which was sending the most effective shots into the American ranks.

By a misunderstanding, these companies were halted midway to the battery. It was a critical moment; if they faltered, the battle was lost. About 20 men under Captain Reid did not heed the order to halt and captured the battery on their own. A Mexican counterattack drove them out, but Reid was now supported by a section of howitzers, which unlimbered at a range of 50 yards and opened up with canister. The Mexicans could not withstand this fire combined with the onset of the cavalry, and soon retreated, leaving the battery again in possession of the Missouri horsemen, who held it while the 2 other companies simultaneously carried the entrenchments on the left of Captain Reid and stubbornly held the ground.

The American right now also charged. The Mexican positions were taken and the defenders fled. The fort on Sacramento Hill was also carried by a part of this right wing, and its destructive crossfire silenced. The left now dismounted and scaled the steeper heights; these held for a time, but were soon broken or captured. Relentlessly pursuing those who escaped, the Americans drove them from one rampart to another, until Gen. Heredia, having rallied his men several times in vain, was obliged to retreat. Conde’s cavalry formed their lines again and again to resist the US squadrons, but were finally driven in confusion down the hill. Then, when the Mexicans were routed along their whole line, the Americans began a pursuit, until dark.

The Americans completely routed the army of Central Mexico, which lost 320 men killed, 560 wounded, and 72 captured. Doniphan officially reported a loss of only 1 officer killed and 11 men wounded. The Mexicans retreated mainly toward Durayer, but without sufficient discipline to hold together; they were so dispersed among the ranches and villages that they could never again be rallied. The specie, provisions, and ammunition gathered for such a large force fell into American hands.

Unable to defend Chihuahua, Trias fled to Parras. Doniphan's men marched into Chihuahua City on March 2 and on April 23. was ordered to bring his men to Saltillo to join Zachary Taylor’s main army.

[palo5]

Originally Posted by Ennath

February 28, 1847
Battle of RioSacramento

In 1846, the US Army of the West occupied New Mexico on its way to California. Its next task was to reduce the state of Chihuahua

Land-grab all the way

[Ennath]

We didn't try to keep Chihuahua, though.

[Ennath]

March 1, 1870
Death of Francisco Lopez

Paraguay had been at war since 1864 and by the end of 1869 had been almost completely overrun, her population devastated. Dictator Francisco Solano Lopez had only 4000 men left under arms, and many of these were sick or walking wounded. He concentrated around Cerro Cora near the Aquidaban River, near the northern edge of the country. Brazilian columns pressed forward to find him, knowing that war would not end while he was still at large.

On January 2, 1870, his 4th Division was recalled to Cerro Cora to join the main force, but was attacked en route by the Brazilian column of Col. Joao Nunes da Silva Tavares, and their 18-day retreat caused considerable suffering and loss. On the 11th, the column of Col. Ignacio Genes was found and attacked at Lomarugua and lost 154 men captured.

In February, an Allied column under Col. Bento Martins de Menezes, searching to the north, learned from a captured deserter that an encampment of 400 Paraguayans was located at the Aquidaban and that Lopez was with them - as, indeed he was, for just 2 days later, at Cerro Cora, he reviewed his troops there. This force contained 268 infantry and 148 cavalry, though the latter’s mounts were not very good. All units were well understrength; a company could consist of as little as a sergeant and a private. A further 40 men under Gen. Bernardino Caballero had been sent out from this camp earlier on a foraging expedition.

Col. Menezes’ force was not near enough or strong enough to act on this information, though it would be in a good position to block the Paraguayan escape route if the camp was attacked. He therefore relayed the information back to Gen. José Cortés da Camara, who decided to contact the enemy as soon as possible, even though he was not at full strength. He recalled an outlying column, which arrived on February 25. He now had some 4000 Brazilian troops.

On March 1, the Brazilian vanguard (Lt-Col. Francisco Antonio Martins) was close enough to attack, and at 7:00 PM, 3 columns set off. The first was to take the forward position that guarded the entrance to the valley, on the River Taquara. The second was to attack the flank, while the third was to evade the Paraguayan pickets and attack the campsite. The unexpected attack on the Paraguayan forward positions allowed very little time for its defenders to organize a strong resistance, although a runner was sent back to warn the main camp. The other 2 attacking columns bypassed forward positions and continued 2.8 miles to the camp, overrunning another Paraguayan detachment on the Aquidaban, clearing the way to the main site, which was attacked as soon as the Brazilians reached it.

On hearing of the attack on his forward positions, Lopez sent an officer and 10 men to confirm the report, while ordering Francisco Roa to bring his men from the far end of the valley to the main camp. However, both detachments were overtaken by events. Many civilians began fleeing the camp as best they could. Meanwhile the Brazilian reserve cavalry charged into the camp, just as the Paraguayan panic was at its height.

In the midst of the confusion, some Paraguayans mounted up to flee, among them Gen. Resquin, Vice-Pres. Francisco Sanchez, the Secretary of State, and Lopez himself, with some of his bodyguard, However, the broken and swampy ground around the campsite prevented fast movement, enabling a force of Brazilian cavalry to cut off their retreat. The Secretary was shot dead and Sanchez killed by a lance thrust. Resquin was surrounded and surrendered after receiving a promise that his life would be spared. As for Lopez, he horse could make little headway through the soft mud of the river. He was called upon to surrender, but refused. A lance thrust to the abdomen unhorsed him, but he was assisted to his feet by some of his staff. However, he could not climb the steep far bank of the Aquidaban-Niqui stream on account of his wound (he and his men were now seemingly all on foot) and his companions set out to find an easier route, leaving him half in the water, grasping a branch from a tree at the water’s edge. Thus he was when the Brazilians found him. He was again called upon to surrender, but replied with his revolver. A Brazilian trooper crossed the stream, grabbed Lopez, pushed him face down against the bank, and fired his Spencer carbine into his back at close range. Lopez died a few minutes later, muttering, “I die with my native land.” A subsequent autopsy found that the lance wound had been mortal, and that the carbine shot had merely hastened his end.

The Paraguayans lost 200 killed, with 245 captured, along with 16 cannon. Civilian casualties were not listed. The president’s son, Francisco “Panchito” Lopez, recently made a colonel at age 15, also died in the battle. Brazilian losses are given as 7 men wounded.

On March 3, more Paraguayans nearby surrendered and, as news of Lopez’ death spread, units further away followed, the last giving up on April 8.

This ended the Paraguayan War. Out of perhaps 500,000 people before the war, the country’s population had been reduced to 232,000, only 95,000 of them males, and only 10,300 of these over 31. Its economic, social and international standing were shattered and would take many years to rebuild. Nevertheless, in Paraguay, Lopez is still looked upon as a defender of the homeland and a glowing example of self-sacrifice for the sake of one’s country.

[Ennath]

240 BC
Truceless War

The Carthaginian army was one of the most diverse and complex forces of the ancient world. Apart from its officer corps, the entire army consisted mostly of mercenaries drawn from all over the Mediterranean world, including Spaniards, Libyans, Numidians, Italians, Greeks, and Gauls. There was no common language or religion, yet they managed to fight together as a powerful force. The reason for its reliance on mercenaries rather than its citizens rested on the fact that Carthage’s indigenous population was relatively small and an army of professional soldiers was superior to that of a conscripted one. Furthermore, Carthage was the wealthiest trading state in the Mediterranean and could easily afford to pay for its vast mercenary armies, but after their humiliating defeat by Rome in the First Punic War (264-241 BC), everything changed.

While Carthage had officially surrendered following its defeat at the Aegates Islands (see posting), Hamilcar Barca’s 20,000 strong mercenary army had been mostly victorious in Sicily and they returned to Africa as heroes. However, the Carthaginian Senate found that its treasury was close to bankruptcy, due to the large costs of the war and the reparation payments forced upon them by Rome. With the threat of disbandment without payment of their back wages, the mercenaries became restless. Concerned about the threat of a large, disgruntled, mercenary force camped near Carthage, the Senate ordered the army to be moved out of the city. Gisco, the Carthaginian commander responsible for transporting the mercenaries from Sicily, attempted to deploy the mercenaries throughout Carthaginian territory. It was his plan to bring the mercenary units back to the capital one at a time, for demobilization and payment. However, delays by the Carthaginian government, and a belief that the mercenaries could be convinced to settle for less than their agreed wages, resulted in the eventual gathering of most of the mercenary armies near Carthage. Wary of such a large foreign army near the capital, and alarmed by the disruptive effects they were having on the city, the Carthaginian government convinced the mercenaries to withdraw to the nearby city of Sicca Veneria (modern El Kef), 105 miles southwest of Carthage, taking their families and baggage trains with them.

Once in Sicca Veneria, the mercenaries agreed on a sum that they should demand from the government. When Hanno, head of the anti-Barca faction in Carthage, met with officers from the mercenary companies, he rejected their demands, claiming that Carthage could not possibly pay such an exorbitant sum due to her post-war indemnities to Rome. The mercenaries were unhappy and mistrustful of Hanno, much preferring to deal with the commanders they had served under in Sicily, such as Hamilcar, who had seen their worth and had made promises to them. Unsurprisingly, due to the mistrust and difficulties in communication (the mercenaries were from many different nations, speaking many different languages), the negotiations quickly broke down. A force of mercenaries, about 20,000 strong, armed themselves and marched towards Carthage, seizing the town of Tunis some 13 miles from the city. The Carthaginian government had no choice but to capitulate to the mercenary demands.

Not willing to deal with Hanno again, and feeling insulted by Hamilcar for not having met with them in the first round of negotiations, the mercenaries agreed to negotiate with Gisco. Given their newly strengthened bargaining position, the mercenaries greatly increased their demands, even requiring the extension of the payments to the Libyans whom Carthage had conscripted (and who were not mercenaries) as well as other Numidians and to the escaped slaves who had joined their ranks against Carthage. Once again Carthage had no choice but to agree. However, two mercenary captains, Spendius and Mathos, organized a rebellion, believing that Carthage would be unwilling, or simply unable, to pay up. When Gisgo met with them to negotiate further, the angry mercenaries kidnapped him and his entourage. Word spread quickly and many Numidian and Libyan tribes joined the mercenaries and the “Truceless War” as it became known had begun.

There was no real Carthaginian army to face the mercenaries. Mathos set up the rebel base at Tunis and quickly besieged the cities of Utica and Hippacritae, whilst Carthage itself was completely surrounded on land. The Carthaginian senate appointed Hanno to raise and field a new army which he accomplished with remarkable efficiency, creating a well disciplined citizen militia. He then led a successful attack on the rebel army besieging Utica. But his success was short lived; the war-hardened rebels quickly regrouped and wheeled around to counter-attack at Hanno’s camp, routing the militia and seizing his artillery and supplies. Hanno himself managed to escape with a few shattered remnants of his army.

The Senate now looked to Hamilcar Barca and pleaded with him to take command. Hamilcar agreed but found his position hardly encouraging; Mathos continued his sieges of Utica and Hippacritae whilst thousands of Numidians, encouraged by the mercenary victory at Utica revolted and joined the rebel army. Hamilcar managed to string together a small militia force composed of the citizenry but it was his superior generalship which would turn the tide.

In the summer of 240BC, Hamilcar sneaked his army out of Carthage under cover of night and led a daring attack on Spendius's troops on the Bagradas River. He had 10,000 foot, 500 cavalry and 70 elephants to face 15,000 rebel infantry. Needing a way to bypass the rebels guarding the crossings, Hamilcar discovered that they could cross the river mouth at low tide without been seen. Making the crossing under cover of night, the militia arrived behind the 5000 rebel advance guard the next morning. Informed of Hamilcar’s sudden advance, Spendius immediately marched out another 10,000 to join up and overwhelm Hamilcar’s inexperienced militia. Hamilcar started the battle by ordering a fake retreat and the over anxious rebels were lured into a disorderly pursuit. All at once, Hamilcar turned and ordered an elephant charge which literally crushed Spendius’ attack. While the militia held the line, the cavalry hacked at the rebel flanks. The rebels soon retreated, having lost half their strength. Hamilcar lost about 500 dead. Following his success, a Numidian prince named Narava committed to Hamilcar with 2000 cavalry. Hamilcar then engaged the rebels at Hippacritae where he was victorious again, killing 10,000 and capturing 4000. However, in an attempt to win favor with the rebels, his prisoners were pardoned and released while others freely came over to Hamilcar and strengthened his ever-increasing army.

With the war entering its second year, Mathos and Spendius grew desperate; they had never expected the conflict to last so long. Worse still, Hamilcar was threatening to undermine the entire rebellion by offering leniency to captured foes; this they could not allow and they required a means to goad him. With Gisgo still in their possession, Mathos had him and 700 other Carthaginians brutally tortured and dismembered before being thrown into a trench to die. The mortified Hamilcar responded by capturing more rebels and having elephants stamp them to death. It was by these and more atrocities to follow that the conflict became known as the Truceless War.

The war now tilted back in favor of the rebels. Hamilcar and Hanno became involved in a bitter feud while the cities of Utica and Hippacritae defected to the rebels and slaughtered their Carthaginian garrisons. With the financial support of these cities, the rebel recruitment base increased dramatically, their cause also being joined by a Libyan chief called Zarzas, whose own forces raised rebel strength to over 50,000 men. The Carthaginian Senate wearied of Hanno and Hamilcar’s bickering and Hamilcar was chosen as the sole commander. He immediately began harassing the rebel army but as he was outnumbered, he refrained from pitched battle. Instead, he fought a campaign of attrition, out marching and outwitting the rebels while scouring the countryside, attacking their supplies and eventually the rebels began to starve. The rebel force besieging Carthage was forced to withdraw. They then began a tiresome pursuit of Hamilcar’s army which constantly managed to evade them. Despite been outnumbered, Hamilcar devised a plan to destroy the rebels at a box like canyon known as The Saw, which allowed easy entry but made escape extremely difficult. Hamilcar ambushed the marching rebel army in the rear, and in their panic managed to herd the greater part of the enemy into the canyon while entrenching on the high ground, sealing them in. The rebels now faced certain starvation and turned to cannibalism as thousands began to die. Their commanders Spendius, Autaritus and Zarzas came forward to discuss terms of surrender with Hamilcar but they were seized and imprisoned. Fearing the worst, the mercenaries made a desperate attempt to escape the canyon but failed. Then, in his most ruthless show of force, Hamilcar ordered the execution of the starving 40,000 rebels who were left. The result of massacre at the Saw was that the mercenary army strength was drastically weakened and Carthage had overcome its greatest challenge of the war.

Now all that separated Hamilcar from victory was Mathos and his smaller army at Tunis. Hannibal (not the famous one) was to take command here, and prior to the battle he had Spendius, Autaritus and Zarzas crucified on a hill so that the rebels could see. But the rebels had their vengeance; they smashed through Hannibal’s defense and stormed his camp, capturing him and replacing their crucified leaders with Hannibal and his officers.

The following year Rome capitalized on Carthage’s internal crisis and in clear violation of the peace treaty, seized the island of Sardinia. Hamilcar was outraged and demanded it back but Rome threatened with war and more reparation payments should Carthage resist. Hamilcar was forced to accept, but it was in spite of this action that Hamilcar swore to forever hate Rome and he would pass this hatred onto his son Hannibal. But for now Hamilcar turned his attention to the rebels and assembled another militia army, totaling 20,000. While Mathos still had the numerical edge, his troops were now primarily Libyans and most of his veterans had been killed at The Saw. Hamilcar engaged Mathos at Leptis, where his forces were smashed and he was captured. With their armies defeated and their leaders dead or captured, the war was won and Hamilcar was hailed as the savior of Carthage.

Despite the crisis of the war, Carthage would continue to rely on mercenaries. Hannibal Barca and his mercenary army would be the terror of Rome in coming years. But payment was never again an issue. Hamilcar established Carthaginian power in southern Spain and greatly increased Carthage’s wealth from its valuable resources, easily affording recruitment of the best soldiers for a new army.

[Ennath]

March 2, 1992
Transnistria War

Before the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and the creation of the Moldavian SSR in 1940, the Bessarabian part of Moldova (the part west of the river Dniester) was part of Romania (1918–1940). Transnistria was part of the Ukrainian SSR, as an autonomous republic called the Moldovan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, with Tiraspol as its capital (1924–1940). It represents slightly more than 1/10 of Moldova's territory.

During the late 1980s, the political landscape of the Soviet Union was changing In the Moldavian SSR, as in many other parts of the USSR, national movements became the leading political force. As these movements began to express intent to leave the USSR in favor of uniting with Romania, they encountered growing opposition from the primarily Russian-speaking ethnic minorities in the republic. This opposition to the new trends and policies was manifested in a more visible way in Transnistria, where, unlike the rest of the MSSR, ethnic Moldovans (39.9%) were outnumbered by the combined figure of Russians and Ukrainians (53.8%), largely due to higher immigration during the Soviet Era.

On August 31, 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the Moldavian SSR enacted two laws. One made Moldovan the official language, in lieu of Russian, while the second stipulated a return to the Latin Romanian alphabet. Other nationalist reforms followed. These, and the fall of the Ceaucescu regime in Romania, led many in to believe that a union between Moldova and Romania was inevitable. This caused fears among the Russian-speaking population that it would be excluded from most aspects of public life. From September 1989, there were protests in the region against the central government’s ethnic policies. These developed into secessionist movements in Gagauzia and Transnistria, which initially sought autonomy within the Moldavian SSR. As the nationalist-dominated Moldovan Supreme Soviet outlawed these initiatives, Gagauzia and Transnistria declared independence from Moldova and announced their application to be reattached to the Soviet Union as independent federal republics. On September 2, 1990, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (PMR) was proclaimed; Pridnestrovie being the name for Transnistria in Russian. For two months, Moldovan authorities refrained from taking action. Transnistria became one of the “unrecognized republics” that appeared throughout the USSR, alongside Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Nagorno-Karabakh.

The first clash occurred on November 3, 1990 in Dubasari. In the aftermath of the failure of the Soviet coup attempt on August 27, 1991, the Moldovan parliament adopted the Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Moldova. The PMR interpreted this as meaning that the 1940-merger of the two sides of the Dniester river was dissolved. Moldova, however, did not agree, as large portions of the territory occupied in 1940 by USSR remain in Ukraine, and almost immediately took steps to assert its sovereignty over the full territory of the now-former MSSR.

At that time, Moldova did not have its own army and the first attempts to create one took place in early 1992 in response to the escalating conflict. By July, they had 25-35,000 men under arms. Romania sent arms, military advisors and volunteers to aid Moldova during the conflict. At the same time, the Russian 14th Guards Army in Moldova numbered about 14,000 soldiers. The PMR authorities had 9000 militia trained and armed by 14th Army. Volunteers came from the Russian Federation: a number of Cossacks joined in to fight alongside the separatists.

The first area of military action was on the eastern shore of the Dniester, around the city of Dubasari, which contains the only bridges. On March 1, 1992 Igor Shipcenko, the local PMR militia chief, was killed by a teenager and Moldovan police were accused of the killing. This incident was a sufficient spark for the already very tense situation to blow up.

In response, Don Cossacks who came to support the PMR stormed the police precinct during the night. Moldovan president Mircea Snegur, afraid of starting an armed conflict, ordered the 26 policemen to surrender. They were later exchanged. The next day, locals from nearby Cocieri, after hearing about the situation in Dubasari, broke into the small local arms depot to arm themselves against the PMR. Three locals were killed, but the military unit from Cocieri was defeated by the Moldovans. More police were ferried the following days from the west bank. They organized a defense line around the 3 local villages, while PMR forces retained control of Dubasari. In the following weeks both sides reinforced and fought a trench war, with intermittent ceasefires.

In April Russian vice-president Alexander Rutskoy visited Transnistria and expressed full Russian support for the separatists.

A ceasefire was in negotiation during June in the Bendery area. However, the full-scale conflict re-erupted after regular Moldovan forces entered the city of Bendery in an attempt to reestablish authority there. It has been reported that this action was a response to a stand-off at the police station in Bendery on June 19. On the afternoon of that day, the Moldovan police in Bendery arrested the 14th Army’s Major Yermakov on suspicion of planned subversion. In response, PMR guards opened fire on the police station. The Moldovan government ordered its troops to enter the city the following morning. Urban warfare ensued in the densely populated city, causing civilian casualties. Moldovan radio said 3 Russian T-64 tanks from the 14th Army, some bearing Russian flags, were destroyed when closing in on central Bendery. Russian Army spokesmen said the tanks had been seized from depots by separatists. The news of the havoc in Bendery reached Tiraspol, only 7 miles away, as Moldovan troops were approaching the crucial bridge over the Dniester. At this point, the Transnistrian Republican Guard and Cossack volunteers rushed to confront the Moldovan forces. Vice-President Rutskoy, in a speech on Russian television, called for Russian forces in Tiraspol to storm Bendery. In the course of the following days, parts of the city, including the center, were retaken by PMR and Russian forces.

On June 22, acting on news that troops from 14th Army were ready to cross the Dniestr and move deep into Moldova, the Moldovan military ordered an airstrike to destroy the bridge between Bendery and Tiraspol. Three MiG-29s took off from Chisinau; no direct hits were achieved, but the bridge received some blast and splinter damage from near misses. One of the bombs went astray and hit a civilian residence, killing a number of people. Sources from 14th Army claimed a second MiG-29 attack on an oil refinery at Tiraspol the following day, in which one aircraft was allegedly shot down by a SA-3 missile, but this sortie was denied by Moldovan authorities.

A ceasefire agreement was signed on July 21. This official document whose broad lines were established by the Russians, was signed by the presidents of Russia (Boris Yeltsin) and Moldova (Mircea Snegur). The agreement provided for peacekeeping forces charged with ensuring observance of the ceasefire and security arrangements, composed of 5 Russian battalions, 3 Moldovan battalions and 2 PMR battalions under the orders of a joint military command structure, the Joint Control Commission (JCC).

It is estimated that nearly 1000 people were killed in the conflict, with the number of wounded approaching 3000. Unlike many other post-Soviet conflicts, IDP’s (internally displaced persons) did not reach large numbers.

Days after the truce had been agreed upon, a military confrontation between a local self-defense unit and the Moldovan army, took place in Gisca, a village with an ethnic Russian majority near Bendery. At least 3 villagers were killed. Later reports of ceasefire violations have been brought under control with no known loss of life.

Russia has since disbanded 14th army and reduced troop strength in Transnistria to about 1300 men who form part of the JCC.

[Arturo2nd]

Originally Posted by palo5

Land-grab all the way

We called it "Manifest Destiny." The whole idea is similar to the tsars expansion of the Russian Empire and Mr. Putin's drive to regain control of the tsars conquests whether or not the people of the once-again-independent nations wish to be subject to Russian domination or not.

[palo5]

Originally Posted by Brian249x

We called it "Manifest Destiny." The whole idea is similar to the tsars expansion of the Russian Empire and Mr. Putin's drive to regain control of the tsars conquests whether or not the people of the once-again-independent nations wish to be subject to Russian domination or not.

No, that's absolutely not true, and you must be reading fake history & fake news. You only have to know that Kiev -- now capital of Ukraine, a previously non-existent country -- was the mother of all Russian cities to realize that

What you may not know is that we have many self-governing Republics in Russia, and many friends in neighboring countries. Don't get your news from hysterical Poles, Ukrainians and your anti-Russian media

[Ernesto75]

Vérité en deça des Pyrénées, erreur au-delà !
Blaise Pascal, mathematicien and philosopher.

Which means:
What is a truth north of the Pyrénées becomes an error when you go south of the Pyrénées.

In other terms Herr Goebels's adepts can contemplate a long career