The Military History Thread

[Ennath]

April 13, 1759
Battle of Bergen

As the campaign season of 1759 opened, the allied commander Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick stole a march on the French by moving out of winter quarters in late March. His destination was Frankfurt, where the French had a base on the Main River. The intent was to drive the French out of Westphalia and seize the initiative for the allies. By the end of the month, his army comprised some 35,000 men (British, Hanoverian, Hessian and Brunswicker) grouped into three divisions. One was commanded by Ferdinand himself, one by Prince Isenburg, and the third by the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp.

Operations commenced with the seizure of Fulda and Meiningen from troops of the Imperial army under Field Marshal von Zweibrücken. As the Imperial army retreated into Bohemia, Ferdinand moved into Hesse hoping to fall upon the corps of Victor-Francois, Duc de Broglie before it could be reinforced.

Broglie, however, was able to reinforce his corps with a contingent of Saxons under the Gen. von Dyhrn along with other French regiments that he was able to assemble. He placed his army of 28,000 at the fortified town of Bergen and awaited developments.

The battlefield lent itself to a defensive stance. The walled town of Bergen was on the right atop a bluff overlooking the floodplain of the Main and thus could not be flanked on that side. Northwest of the town was the Berger Warte, a low hill that dominated the center and atop of which stood (and still stands) an old tower. Left of that was the town of Vilbel, located on the Nidda River, whose floodplain was covered by an expanse of woods.

Broglie placed a large quantity of infantry in and behind the town of Bergen. On his left, he placed his light infantry in the woods supported by the Saxon contingent as well as some of his cavalry. He placed most of his artillery in the center in 8 batteries. Behind the guns he positioned the bulk of his cavalry as well as his reserves. His reserves were formed in "columns of waiting", a type of formation that anticipated Napoleonic tactics and was not in common use at this time.

Ferdinand's army arrived on the field of battle piecemeal. Ferdinand himself accompanied the vanguard. As Ferdinand mistakenly believed that the French had not yet fully deployed, he ordered an immediate attack, choosing not to wait for the other 2 divisions. Despite the long odds, by 8:00, the town of Vilbel had been seized by Freytag's light infantry and the Am Hohen Stein, another low hill located east of the Berger Warte, had been occupied. Perceiving that Bergen was the key to the position, by 8:30 Ferdinand ordered an assault on this position. The initial allied attack was successful, driving the French infantry from the hedges and orchards that they occupied and back into the town. Then Broglie began to feed in reinforcements which turned the tide against the allies, driving them back.

At 10:00, Prince Isenburg's division arrived. Ferdinand ordered forwards every gun he could collect to support the advance of Isenburg’s entire column. The Allied launched a fresh attack covered by intense musketry and gun fire. Nevertheless, after a little time, they were caught into violent artillery fire from the sunken road: Broglie had deployed every gun he could collect from batteries along the eastern side of the road. From this place they poured a devastating fire into the advancing columns. Despite this fire, the Hanoverians and Hessians deployed themselves into line and marched ahead again aiming straight at Bergen. Broglie threw against them all available battalions, personally leading Rohan Montbazon Infanterie. Isenburg himself was killed while trying to rally his men. It was with difficulty that Ferdinand himself was able to restore order to his troops.

At this point, the battle began to cool off. As Broglie brought his reserve and his cavalry forward, Ferdinand was able to gauge the size of his opponent's army. Furthermore, the French artillery was finding its range and forcing the allied army back up the Am Hohen Stein. As Holstein-Gottorp's division finally made it onto the field, preparations for another attack were abandoned and the battle turned into an artillery duel that lasted until the fall of night, when the allies withdrew. Although it was a clear French victory, Broglie did not aggressively pursue as Ferdinand fell back on Minden.

Allied casualties amounted to 415 dead, 1770 wounded, and 188 missing. The French lost 500 dead and 1300 wounded. It was Ferdinand's darkest moment, and even his brother in law, Frederick the Great commiserated with him to try to boost his morale. Ferdinand would recover, however, and redeem himself and his army later in the same year at the Battle of Minden (see posting).

[Ennath]

April 14, 1864
ChinchaIslands War

During the reign of Isabella II (1854-68), Spain became the 4th biggest naval power and engaged in colonial adventures in Morocco, Indochina, Mexico, and the Dominican Republic (which it briefly reoccupied). At the end of 1862, Spain sent a scientific expedition to South American waters, with the covert purpose of reinforcing the financial and legal claims of Spanish citizens residing there. The expedition was under the command of Adm, Luis Hernández Pinzón - a direct descendant of the Pinzón brothers who accompanied Christopher Columbus. Pinzón's squadron was composed of 2 steam frigates, a corvette and a schooner.

The Spanish ships arrived at the port of Valparaiso, Chile, on April 18, 1863. Spain had recognized Chilean independence since the 1840s, and the nations had maintained diplomatic relations. The expedition was cordially received, and the Admiral exchanged visits with local authorities. The vessels left in July amicably and moved on to Peru. Even though Spain had never recognized Peruvian independence, the squadron received a friendly welcome at the port of Callao. They stayed in port for a few weeks and then sailed, bound for California.

On August 4, 1863, an incident took place at Lambayeque, Peru, involving a fight between 2 Spanish residents and 40 citizens; 1 Spaniard died and 4 others were injured. When news reached Admiral Pinzón, he returned with his fleet to Peru on November 13 and demanded an apology and reparations. The Peruvians maintained that the episode was an internal police matter better handled by the Peruvian justice system and that no apology was due. At this juncture, Madrid decided to demand payment of Peruvian debts stemming from the War of Independence, and sent deputy Eusebio de Salazar y Mazaredo to settle the issue directly with the Peruvian authorities. Salazar arrived in March 1864, bearing the title of Royal Commissary. This was a deliberate insult to the government of Peru, because a Commissary is a colonial functionary, rather than an ambassador. The snub doomed negotiations.

On April 14, 1864, in retaliation for Peru's refusal to pay indemnity, the Spanish fleet seized the lightly defended Chincha Islands. These were the principal source for Peruvian guano resources. Spain considered these islands an important bargaining tool, as they produced almost 60% of Peru’s annual revenue. The squadron also blockaded principal Peruvian ports, disrupting commerce and fostering resentment throughout Latin America. During this blockade, the Spanish lost the frigate Triunfo in an accidental fire.

Prime Minister Ramón María Narváez disapproved the unilateral actions taken by Pinzón and replaced him with Vice Adm. Juan Manuel Pareja, who had been born in Peru. Narváez's conciliatory views soon changed, and he dispatched another 4 warships to reinforce the Pacific fleet. Pareja arrived in Peru in December 1864 and immediately opened negotiations. The resulting treaty, signed on January 27, 1865 on board the frigate Villa de Madrid, was considered in Peru as detrimental to its national honor. When the Peruvian Congress refused to ratify it, a general uprising followed and the government fell.

It was obvious to most observers that Spain had no intention of retaking its former colonies. However, Peru and its neighbors still remained wary of any moves that might foreshadow an attempt to reestablish the Spanish Empire. Given the climate of suspicion, no one was surprised when the Spanish gunboat Vencedora stopped at a Chilean port for coal and President José Joaquín Pérez declared that coal was a war supply that could not be sold to a belligerent nation. From the Spanish point of view, this was taken as proof that Chile was no longer neutral. This was reinforced after 2 Peruvian steamers left Valparaiso bearing weapons and Chilean volunteers. Pareja consequently demanded sanctions against Chile that were even heavier than those imposed on Peru. He then detached 4 ships from his squadron and dispatched them to Chile, while 2 remained to guard Callao. Pareja arrived at Valparaiso on September 17, 1865 aboard his flagship Villa de Madrid. He demanded that the Spanish flag be given a 21-gun salute, deliberately presenting his demand just before Chilean National Day (September 18). The Chileans refused, and war was declared a week later.

Spanish Prime Minister Leopoldo O'Donnell ordered Pareja to withdraw, but the Spanish admiral chose to ignore the direct order. As he had no troops with which to attempt a landing, he decided to impose a blockade of the main Chilean ports. This was unenforceable, since a blockade of Chile's 1800 miles of coastline would have required a fleet several times larger than he had at his disposal. The blockade of Valparaiso, however, caused such great economic damage to both Chilean and foreign interests that the United States and United Kingdom issued a formal protest.

Even before Chile and Peru were formally allied, Spain had suffered a humiliating naval defeat at Papudo on November 26, 1865. The Chilean corvette Esmeralda captured the Spanish schooner Covadonga, taking the crew prisoner and seizing the Admiral's correspondence. This humiliation was too much for Admiral Pareja, and he committed suicide 2 days later aboard his flagship. Command of the Spanish fleet in the Pacific was assumed by Commodore Casto Méndez Núñez, who quickly received a promotion to rear admiral.

Chile and Peru formally signed an alliance against Spain on December 5, and on January 14, 1866, Peru finally declared war on Spain. Chile's navy was weak. To reinforce its Chilean ally, a Peruvian squadron was immediately dispatched south. Among the ships in the squadron were the steam frigates Amazonas and Apurímac. Ecuador joined the alliance on January 30. Bolivia also declared war on March 22.

Mendez Núñez sent two of his most powerful ships (ironclad frigates Villa de Madrid and Reina Blanca) south to destroy the Chilean-Peruvian fleet. The allied squadron had been placed under the command of Peruvian Captain Manuel Villar and had taken refuge at Abtao, a well-protected inlet near the gulf of Chiloé in southern Chile. The Spanish squadron appeared at the entrance of the inlet on February 7, 1866, but the Spanish did not enter as they did not want to risk their ironclads running aground in the shallows. Fire was exchanged with little effect. In spite of being at anchor, without steam, and with some ships with their engines undergoing overhaul, the allies mounted an energetic fight. The battle ended indecisively. Reluctant to enter shallow waters and realizing that a long range gun duel served no purpose but to waste ammunition, the Spanish commanders withdrew. On its way back to Valparaiso, the Spanish squadron captured a Chilean steamer transporting sailors to crew the new Peruvian ironclads Huáscar and Independencia.

The Spanish could not attack land forces, and they had been frustrated in attempts to engage the allied squadron at sea. They were isolated, short of supplies and losing hope of victory. When the Chilean government ordered that all vessels communicating with the Spanish fleet should be barred from Chilean ports, Mendez Núñez decided to take punitive actions against the ports. The Spanish fleet shelled and burned Valparaiso on March 31, and destroyed Chile's merchant fleet. All told, 33 vessels were burned or sunk.

Mendez Núñez, displeased at having to resort to destroying defenseless targets like Valparaiso and with the inconclusive result at Abtao, decided to change tactics and attack a heavily defended port. As a result, he set sail for the Peruvian port of Callao. The battle occurred on May 2. Despite silencing most of the shore batteries and inflicting heavy casualties, several Spanish ships were damaged and Mendez Núñez withdrew. Both sides claimed victory.

Whether the suspicions of a Spanish scheme to recapture its former colonies had any basis in fact is unknown. Many in South America saw Spain's meddling and its occupation of the Chincha Islands as proof of a long-range Spanish plot to reassert its influence. The force sent by Spain, on the other hand, amounted to a mere squadron with negligible capabilities for landing forces, and the intention may have only been to seize the islands for their valuable fertilizer resources as reparations and to regain some lost prestige. Regardless of the reason, the Spanish found it impossible to hold their positions. With all ports south of Colombia closed to them for coaling and provisioning, the Spanish fleet withdrew from patrolling the South American coastline, vacated the Chincha Islands and returned to Spain via the Philippines, completing a circumnavigation of the globe.

[Ennath]

291
War of the Eight Princes

In 249, Sima Yi seized control of the Kingdom of Wei. After his death in 251, his position was succeeded by his son Sima Shi, and after Shi died in 255, his younger brother Sima Zhao took control. Under Sima Zhao’s reign, the rival state of Shu was conquered in 263. Sima Zhao passed away in 265 and was succeeded by his son, Sima Yan. That same year, Sima Yan deposed the last Wei emperor and created the Jin dynasty. In 280, Jin conquered the state of Wu, reuniting all of the land that had once belonged to the Han dynasty, along with some additional territories.

Sima Yan died in 290, and his son Sima Zhong succeeded him as emperor. However, Sima Zhong was developmentally disabled and could not rule in his own right. Sima Yan named two regents for his son. One was Yang Jun, the father of Sima Yan’s empress, Yang Zhi. The other was Sima Liang, the 4th son of Sima Yi. However, Yang Jun was not willing to share power. Sima Liang fled the capital and assumed command as Marshal of Yu province, rather than oppose Yang Jun. However, Sima Zhong’s empress, Jia Nanfeng, was not willing to let Yang Jun usurp control. She spent almost a year gathering support and in April of 291, Jia Nanfeng led palace forces to seize Yang Jun and his relatives. Yang Jun and his supporters were killed. Jia Nanfeng invited Sima Liang and others to take part in government affairs.

In July of 291, the ambitious prince Sima Wei arrived in Luoyang. Jia Nanfeng ordered him to kill Sima Liang so that he could take his place. He did this, but Jia Nanfeng then charged him with forging an Imperial edict (granting him the authorization to kill Sima Liang) and executed him. This left her in sole control of the government. This was generally accepted as Sima Zhong’s heir, Sima Yu, seemed like a promising young man. There was an unspoken understanding that Sima Yu would take control of government when he came of age. Since Jia Nanfeng did an excellent job of overseeing affairs in her own right, none of the princes felt compelled to speed her departure.

For 5 years, Sima Yong (a son of Sima Yi) held official appointment as the head of the Imperial Secretariat, but he had no real authority. In 296, he departed to oversee a border territory. He was recalled to the capital around the year 300 to once again hold titular appointment as the head of the Secretariat. By now, Sima Yu had become a problem for Jia Nanfeng. He was old enough to assert himself and his existence threatened to remove her from power. She tricked him into writing a treasonous letter and then executed him. The various Sima princes, however, refused to accept this.

The most prominent of the Princes was Sima Lun, Prince of Zhao. He and his brother Yong were stationed in Luoyang, and in May of 300, they led their forces to seize the palace. They executed Jia Nanfeng and her supporters. Sima Lun then received the title Chancellor of the State and took control. His regime immediately met with heavy criticism. Many accused him of acting unlawfully, and that autumn a relative named Sima Yun tried to lead a coup d'état. It failed and he was executed. This made Sima Lun more arrogant and in February of 301, he deposed Sima Zhong and declared himself the new emperor.

While his relatives supported his efforts against Jia Nanfeng, they were unwilling to tolerate this action, and a group of Princes who held military command in various provinces banded together to oppose him. Their forces converged on Luoyang, and a bloody siege ensued. Ultimately, Sima Lun was defeated and executed. Their leader, Sima Jiong reinstated Sima Zhong and took control of the government.

Opportunities for ambitious princes presented themselves in the next year. Sima Yu (the crown prince killed by Jia Nanfeng in 300) had been survived by a son, but the child passed away in May 302. This child had been Sima Zhong’s designated heir, but now a new heir would be selected. This meant that Sima Zhong’s many younger brothers now had an opportunity. Sima Ying expected to receive the position, but he was opposed by Sima Yung, in command at Chang'an. He had intended to support Sima Lun’s claim as emperor, but he withheld his aid when he decided that Lun was doomed. Sima Yung rebelled and began a march to Luoyang. He also spread false rumors that he had been in contract with Sima I, another of the Princes, who had remained in Luoyang to assist Sima Jiong in the government. Sima Jiong sent men to kill Sima I, but Sima I was able to rally forces of his own and kill Jiong instead, and took control of the government.

In spite of Sima Zhong’s disability, Sima I always consulted with him on government matters and encouraged Zhong to think for himself. He treated the emperor with proper respect and with familial love. In a time of chaos and treason, he was perhaps the last good and loyal servant of the Imperial family. Sima Yung and Sima Ying both resented Sima I and allied against him. In 303, Sima Yung sent his general Zhang Fang to attack from Chang'an while Sima Ying attacked from Ye. However, Sima I proved capable of defeating both armies. He inflicted a crushing defeat on Sima Ying and repelled Zhang Fang’s attack.

However, Sima I was betrayed by a trusted subordinate, Sima Yue, Prince of Donghai. Like Sima Yung, Yue was from a distant branch of the family. He became Minister of Works under Sima I’s regime, but when he determined that Sima I could not defeat the other two princes, he revolted in March of 304 and had Sima I put under house arrest. Then, worried of what might happen if Sima I was to escape, he sent him to Zhang Fang. Zhang Fang executed Sima I by burning him alive.

Sima Yung, Sima Ying, and Sima Yue were now all in alliance. Ying named himself as Sima Zhong’s heir and the others had little choice but to accept. Ying reestablished several government offices at his own capital of Ye. Furthermore, Zhang Fang held Luoyang - nominally for Sima Yung, but his loyalty was uncertain. Yue resented this, since he still held control over Luoyang and the emperor. In summer of 304, he led a campaign against Ye to destroy Sima Ying, bringing the emperor with him so as not to lose control of him. However, Ying defeated Yue in battle at Tangyin and captured the emperor. Yue escaped and fled to Donghai.

However, victory did not last long for Ying. A talented general named Wang Jun had been appointed to You province many years ago to oversee relations with the nomadic Xiongnu, Wuhuan, and Xianbei. He was favored by Jia Nanfeng’s regime and was one of her key supporters, though he escaped punishment due to his position in the far north. He supported Sima l and was despised by Sima Ying, but his allies in the tribes made him too powerful dislodge. Sima Ying had made some attempts to remove Wang Jun, but his plans failed. After the Battle of Tangyin, Wang Jun perceived that Ying’s position was weak, and he led a large army (including a great many tribal troops) to take Ye. Ying fled to Luoyang and Wang Jun pillaged the region. Ying was completely discredited. Control of the emperor and the government were now in Zhang Fang’s hands, since he was the one who commanded the army in the capital at that point. Zhang Fang moved the court to Chang'an, and with this authority he was able to dominate Sima Yung as well.

Zhang Fang’s regime was surrounded by enemies. Wang Jun and his army continued to march south. Another large Xiongnu army led by Liu Yuan was also on the march. In Donghai, Sima Yue regrouped his forces and prepared to fight for control of the emperor once again. Yue advanced west in 305 and defeated every army in his path; he captured Xuchang, Ye, and Luoyang and was poised to strike at Chang'an by the start of 306. Hoping to appease Sima Yue, Sima Yung assassinated Zhang Fang and asked for terms. However, Wang Jun’s army arrived first and captured Chang'an. Sima Ying and Sima Yung were both killed, and Wang Jun returned the emperor to Luoyang, where he once again fell under Sima Yue’s control.

With Wang Jun’s victory at Chang'an, the War of Eight Princes was officially ended, since Sima Yue was the only one left standing. In June of 306, he controlled the emperor and the court at Luoyang. But he could not truly be called victorious. The empire was greatly weakened and barbarian revolts would topple the Jin dynasty in 313.

[Ennath]

April 15, 1847
Battle of Tourane

French missionaries had been active in Vietnam since the 17th century, and by the middle of the 19th century there were perhaps 300,000 Catholic converts in Annam and Tonkin. Most of their bishops and priests were either French or Spanish. Most Vietnamese disliked and suspected the sizeable Christian community and its foreign leaders. The French, conversely, began to feel responsible for their safety. During the reigns of the Vietnamese emperors Minh Mang (1820–41) and Thieu Tri (1841–47), Catholic missionaries were forbidden to live and work in Vietnam, and several European missionaries who ignored this edict were either banished or, on occasion, executed, and there was occasional anti-Christian violence.

French naval captains in the Far East were given instructions to negotiate with the Vietnamese authorities when such cases occurred. On two occasions they intervened with considerable success. On February 25, 1843, Captain Favin-Lévêque of the Héroine anchored off Da Nang (Tourane) to intercede for the release of 5 missionaries detained at Hué for two years. After long and frustrating negotiations, the missionaries were released. In 1845, the French corvette Alcmène went to Tourane to ask for the release of Dominique Lefèbvre, the French vicar apostolic of Lower Cochinchina, who was being held prisoner at Hué. Again, the Vietnamese acceded to the French request.

The 1845 intervention was ordered by Adm. Cécille, the senior French naval officer on station. In early 1847, Dominique Lefèbvre secretly re-entered Vietnam. He and another missionary, Duclos, were imprisoned. In March, Cécille sent the 54-gun frigate Gloire (Captain Augustin de Lapierre) and the 24-gun corvette Victorieuse (Captain Charles Rigault de Genouilly) to Tourane, with instructions to negotiate for the liberation of the two imprisoned missionaries and to seek a commitment from the Vietnamese authorities to allow freedom of worship for Roman Catholics in Vietnam.

Probably because the Vietnamese considered Lefèbvre's return to Vietnam a deliberate provocation, the negotiations failed. Discussions dragged on without result, and on April 15, 6 Vietnamese corvettes attacked the two French ships in the Bay of Tourane. According to the French, the Vietnamese spun out the negotiations to win time to assemble a fleet, and then treacherously attacked without warning. In the brief action that followed, the French sank 4 Vietnamese corvettes and disabled a 5th, and inflicted nearly 1200 casualties. However, the French captains decided that their ships were no longer safe at anchor and they soon departed, abandoning the Christians to the vengeance of the Vietnamese authorities.

The Vietnamese naval defeat at Tourane dramatically demonstrated the technological superiority of western warships over the antiquated vessels of the Vietnamese fleet. In the eyes of many thoughtful Vietnamese, it demonstrated that the kingdom's blind adherence to the values and traditions of the past had left it painfully vulnerable to European coercion, and spurred calls for modernization.

Harassment of the Christians eventually provided France with a pretext for attacking Vietnam. The tension built up gradually. During the 1840s, the persecution of missionaries in Vietnam evoked only sporadic and unofficial French reprisals, such as that taken by de Lapierre and Rigault de Genouilly in 1847. In 1857, however, the execution of two Spanish missionaries led directly to intervention in Vietnam. In September 1858, a joint French and Spanish naval expedition landed at Da Nang. Its commander was Adm. Charles Rigault de Genouilly, one of the two French naval captains involved in the 1847 incident. The resultant campaign inaugurated the era of French colonial rule in Vietnam.

[Ennath]

April 16, 1071
Fall of Bari

In the early 11th century immigrant Norman adventurers arrived in Italy as mercenaries in the service of Lombard and Byzantine factions, sending news back home about opportunities in the Mediterranean. These groups gathered in several places, establishing fiefdoms and states of their own, uniting and elevating their status to de facto independence within 50 years of their arrival. Unlike the Norman conquest of England, the conquest of southern Italy was the product of decades and a number of battles. Many territories were conquered independently, and only later were unified into a single state.

The earliest reported mention of Norman knights in southern Italy is 999, although it may be assumed that they had visited before then. A serious use of Norman mercenaries took place during a revolt (1009-1022) in southern Italy against the Catapanate of Italy, the regional Byzantine authority. The rebels employed a newly arrived band of Normans sent by Pope Benedict, which combined with the Lombards to battle the Byzantines. The armies met near Cannae in 1018, ending in a decisive Byzantine victory. A historian wrote that only 10 Normans survived from a contingent of 250.

The Normans acted as mercenaries on both sides, and would obtain good terms for the release of their brethren from captivity regardless of outcome. Slowly the Normans expanded their control over southern Italy. They defeated and captured the pope himself at Civitella (1053).

While most of Apulia (except the far south and Bari) had capitulated to the Normans in campaigns by the fraternal counts William, Drogo and Humphrey, much of Calabria remained in Byzantine hands at Robert Guiscard’s 1057 succession. Calabria was first penetrated during the early 1040s, and Drogo installed Guiscard there during the early 1050s. However, Robert's early career in Calabria was spent in feudal infighting and robber baronage rather than organized subjugation of the Greek population.

Briefly interrupted for the Council of Melfi on August 23, 1059 (where he was invested as duke), he returned to Calabria - and his army's siege of Cariati - later that year. The town capitulated on the duke's arrival, and Rossano and Gerace also fell before the end of the season. Of the peninsula's significant cities, only Reggio remained in Byzantine hands when Robert returned to Apulia that winter. In Apulia, he temporarily removed the Byzantine garrison from Taranto and Brindisi. The duke returned to Calabria in 1060, primarily to launch a Sicilian expedition. Although the conquest of Reggio required an arduous siege, Robert's brother Roger had siege engines prepared. After the fall of Reggio the Byzantine garrison fled to Reggio's island citadel of Scilla, where they were easily defeated. Roger's minor assault on Messina (across the strait) was repulsed, and Robert was called away by a large Byzantine force in Apulia sent by Constantine X late in 1060. Under the catapan Miriarch, the Byzantines retook Taranto, Brindisi, Oria, and Otranto; in January 1061, the Norman capital of Melfi was under siege. By May, however, the brothers had expelled the Byzantines and calmed Apulia.

The Normans then invaded Muslim controlled Sicily in May 1061, crossing from Reggio di Calabria and besieging Messina. Over the next 30 years the Muslims were driven out of Sicily (see posting, Norman Conquest of Palermo).

Geoffrey, son of Peter I of Trani, conquered Otranto in 1063 and Taranto (which he made his county seat) in 1064. In 1066 he organized an army for a marine attack on "Romania" (the Byzantine Balkans), but was halted near Bari by a recently landed army of Varangian auxiliaries.

In 1068 the Normans turned their attention to Bari, the capital of the Byzantine catapanate. Robert Guiscard, with a large force, laid siege to the city August 5, 1068. Within the city there were two parties: one wanting to maintain its allegiance to the Byzantine Empire, and another that was pro-Norman. When the Norman troops neared, the former had prevailed and the local barons shut the gates and sent an embassy led by Bisantius Guirdeliku to emperor Romanos IV Diogenes to seek military help. The negotiations offered by Robert were refused.

Otranto fell in October, but at Bari the Norman attacks against the walls were repeatedly repulsed. Robert decided to blockade the city's port with a fortified bridge in order to thwart any relief effort. The Byzantines, however, destroyed the bridge, and managed to maintain a link with their homeland.

Romanos IV named a new catapan, Avartuteles, and provided him with a fleet carrying men and supplies for Bari. The fleet arrived at the city in early 1069, but in the meantime a Byzantine field army was defeated by the Normans, who occupied Gravina and Obbiano. Robert did not return immediately to Bari, and in January 1070 he moved to Brindisi to help the Norman forces then besieging that coastal fortress. Brindisi capitulated in the autumn of 1070.

The situation in Bari was now critical, and the population suffered from famine. Avartuteles plotted to have Robert assassinated, but the Byzantine patricius Byzantios Guideliku failed. A delegation of citizens asked the catapan to improve the city's circumstances, or otherwise surrender to the Normans. Avartuteles played for time, sending another embassy to Constantinople. He obtained the arrival of a fleet with grain. When the grain ran out, a group of citizens again asked the catapan to beg the emperor to send an army as soon as possible.

Romanos IV, whose generals had been repeatedly defeated by the Normans, and with few free troops to send, sent 20 ships under the command of Gocelin, a Norman rebel who had taken shelter in Constantinople. Stephen Pateran, appointed as new catapan of Italy, came with him. However, the Normans intercepted the Byzantine squadron off Bari and scattered them. The Normans identified Gocelin's ship and, despite the loss of 150 men, finally captured it; Stephen was able to reach Bari. He soon recognized that the position had become impossible; a local noble, Argyritsos, was sent to negotiate with the Normans. The latter offered acceptable conditions, and Bari surrendered on April 16, 1071. With the fall of Bari, the Byzantine presence in southern Italy ended after 536 years.

[Ennath]

April 17, 1555
Fall of Siena

The Republic of Siena was one of the more turbulent Italian states. It was a long-standing Republic, but was also officially part of the Holy Roman Empire. As was often the case in the Italian republics the city was often disturbed by factional struggles. In the early 1540s the city was ruled by a council, the Nova, supported by a group called the Noveschi. This group had been expelled on several occasions, and had most recently returned in the 1520s. At about the same time Charles V had put a Spanish garrison in the city in an attempt to impose order.

In 1545 the people of Siena rose up against the Imperial commissioner Juan de Luna and the Noveschi, who were driven out of the city. Charles then sent Francesco Grassi from Milan in an attempt to arrange a compromise. He failed, and in 1547 the citizens took up arms again. This time they accepted the protection of the Pope, excluded the Noveschi from any share in the government and protested against the presence of any foreign garrison. Cosimo di Medici of Florence managed to negotiate a settlement, and in September a Spanish garrison returned to the city.

In October, Diego de Mendoza, the Imperial ambassador to Venice, arrived at Siena. He received an impressive reception as the representative of Charles V, but he soon wasted this good will. In November 1548 he restored the Noveschi and the Council of Forty, but also insisted that half of the members should be picked by himself. In 1549 he disarmed the people, and announced that Charles intended to build a fortress outside the city. This was portrayed as an attempt to protect Siena, but was seen within the city as an attempt to overawe it.

The proposed fortress was a serious mistake. Not only did it alienate the citizens, work on it proceeded so slowly that it was of no value when the Sienese revolted once again, in 1552. The revolt was organized at a meeting that included the Cardinal of Ferrara, Prince Ferrante Sanseverino of Naples, Orazio Farnese, Niccolo Orsini, the Strozzi family (exiled from Florence) and the French Ambassador. The plotters hoped to take advantage of a series of threats to the Imperial position, including a Turkish threat to Naples and fighting in Piedmont that distracted Ferrante Gonzaga, Prince of Mantua, Imperial Governor of Milan. On July 17, 1552 a force of French and Italian troops under Louis de Lansac and the Sienese Aeneas Piccolomini forced the Spanish garrison to surrender, but Medici managed to prevent the revolt from spreading further across Italy by mediating an agreement with the rebels. Siena was to be a free city under Imperial protection and no foreign troops were to enter the city, The citizens destroyed the half-built castle.

The French soon broke the agreement, moving troops into the city. The Cardinal of Ferrara took over the administration of the city, generally acting in the French interest and the fortifications were reinforced.

Imperial forces made a first attempt to recapture Siena in January 1553. Pedro Alvarez de Toledo, Viceroy of Naples, landed at Livorno, while Garcia de Toledo, the Viceroy's 2nd son, led an army from Naples into Tuscany and took up a position on the border. Cosimo de Medici gave some guns to the Imperial troops and stopped the French from moving reinforcements through Florentine territory. This attack halted when the Viceroy died at Florence. In the aftermath of this failure Diego de Mendoza was recalled to Spain while Gonzaga's authority was greatly reduced.

Cosimo de Medici now changed his attitude. Previously he hadn't wanted to see Gonzaga or Mendoza gain too much authority in northern Italy, but now that they had been removed or reduced in power he was free to act against Siena. On November 25, 1553 he made a secret treaty with Charles V in which he agreed to recover Siena for the Emperor. He was motivated by the activities of Pietro Strozzi, who had gained French support and was attempting to raise a revolt against Medici rule in Florence. On January 7, 1554 Strozzi entered Siena. Eleven days later, he left to examine the defenses of the Republic. This left the city somewhat vulnerable, and on the night of January 26, Florentine troops managed to capture the Porta Camollia. They were unable to take advantage of this early success and were soon expelled, but this marked the start of serious fighting.

The attacking forces were commanded by Gian Medecino, Marquis of Merignano, a successful artillery commander who conducted a methodical siege. Strozzi was a much more flamboyant commander, adept at mobile warfare. He was aware that he needed more troops and so sent messages to France asking for help. King Henry II decided to send Blaise de Monluc to command in the city, while Strozzi would remain in command of the field army.

Strozzi still had to actually meet up with the French reinforcements. He achieved this with a daring raid that took him deep into Florentine territory. He broke through the siege lines and headed north, crossing the Arno just to the west of Florence. He then joined up with the reinforcements coming from the north and moved towards the lower reaches of the Arno. He was nearly trapped between Pisa and Piatoia, but managed to escape south towards Piombino. Here he met with his first disappointment, discovering that his brother Leone had been killed while fighting at sea. From Piombino he joined up with more reinforcements then moved east, before entering Siena with 17,000 reinforcements.

Strozzi's next plan was for an attack on Florence. He led his field army northeast towards Arezzo, with the aim of moving northwest from there along the Arno towards Florence. This plan ended in failure. Merignano was able to trap Strozzi in the Chiani valley, south of Arezzo, and then defeated him in battle at Marciano (August 2, 1554). Strozzi escaped, but his army was destroyed.

This allowed Merignano to concentrate on the siege of Siena. It was soon clear to Monluc that food supplies were crucial. Half way through the siege he let his landsknechts go in order to reduce the drain on resources. A more dramatic step was take in February 1555 when he expelled 4400 “useless mouths”. Monluc later admitted that he would never again witness anything quite so frightful. After 8 days trapped outside the city half of the 4400 had died and the other half had managed to escape.

By the spring of 1555, food had almost run out and starvation was widespread. Eventually the Sienese decided to surrender. Monluc refused to take part in the capitulation and left before the final surrender. The city surrendered on April 17, 1555.

In 1557 the new Spanish king, Philip II, gave Siena and most of the Republic's territory to Cosimo, and it became part of the Duchy of Tuscany. A number of coastal towns were retained by the Spanish and were ruled from Naples as the Stato dei Presidi (State of the Garrisons). A group of Sienese families escaped to Montalcino in the mountains, where they held on until 1559, but they never threatened to overthrow the earlier arrangements.

[Ennath]

April 18, 1988
Operation Praying Mantis

On April 14,1988, the frigate USS Samuel B. Roberts struck a mine while deployed in the Persian Gulf as part of Operation Earnest Will, the 1987–88 convoy missions in which US warships escorted reflagged Kuwaiti oil tankers to protect them from Iranian attacks. The explosion blew a 15-foot hole in the Roberts’ hull and nearly sank it. The crew saved their ship with no loss of life, and the ship was towed to Dubai on April 16. Afterward, US Navy divers recovered other mines in the area. When the serial numbers were found to match those of mines seized along with the minelayer Iran Ajr the previous September, military officials planned a retaliatory operation.

On April 18, the US Navy attacked with several groups of surface warships, plus aircraft from the USS Enterprise, and her cruiser escort, USS Truxtun. The action began with coordinated strikes by 2 surface groups.

One Surface Action Group (SAG), consisting of the destroyers Merrill and Lynde McCormick, plus the amphibious transport dock Trenton and its embarked Marine Air-Ground Task Force and the LAMPS (Light Airborne MultiPurpose System) Helicopter Detachment from Samuel B. Roberts, was ordered to destroy the guns and other military facilities on the Sassan oil platform. At 8 AM, the SAG commander ordered the Merrill to radio a warning to the occupants of the platform, telling them to abandon it. The SAG waited 20 minutes, then opened fire. The platform fired back with twin-barreled 23mm guns. After some of the guns were disabled, platform occupants requested a cease-fire. The SAG complied. After a tug carrying more personnel had cleared the area, the ships resumed exchanging fire with the remaining ZU-23s, and ultimately disabled them. This ended resistance. The Marines boarded the platform, and recovered a single wounded survivor, some small arms, and intelligence. The Marines planted explosives, left the platform, and detonated them. The SAG was then ordered to proceed north to the Rakhsh oil platform to destroy it. As the SAG departed, 2 Iranian F-4s made an attack run, but broke off when the Lynde McCormick locked its fire control radar on them. Halfway to the Rahksh oil platform, the attack was called off in an attempt to ease pressure on the Iranians and signal a desire for de-escalation.

The other group, which included cruiser Wainwright and frigates Simpson and Bagley , attacked the Sirri oil platform. SEALs were assigned to capture, occupy and destroy the platform but due to heavy pre-assault damage from naval gunfire, it was determined that an assault was not required.

Iran responded by dispatching Boghammar speedboats to attack various targets in the Persian Gulf, including the American-flagged supply ship Willie Tide, the Panamanian-flagged oil rig Scan Bay and the British tanker York Marine. All of these vessels were damaged. After the attacks, 2 A-6E Intruders were directed to the speedboats by an American frigate. One boat was sunk and several others damaged before the boats fled to the Iranian-controlled island of Abu Musa.

Action continued to escalate. The Iranian missile boat Joshan challenged the Wainwright. After ignoring warnings from the cruiser, the Joshan fired a Harpoon missile, which was deflected by chaff. US ships responded by sinking the Iranian boat with 6 missiles. 2 Iranian F-4s were orbiting about 30 miles away when Wainwright decided to drive them away. The Wainwright fired two Extended Range Standard missiles, one of which detonated near an F-4, blowing off part of its wing. The F-4s withdrew, and the Iranian pilot landed his damaged airplane at Bandar Abbas.

Fighting continued when the Iranian frigate Sahand departed Bandar Abbas and challenged an American SAG. The frigate was spotted by two A-6Es. The Sahand fired missiles at the A-6Es, which replied with two Harpoons and four laser-guided Skippers. The Joseph Strauss fired a Harpoon. Most of the shots scored hits, causing heavy damage and fires; the blazes eventually reached her munitions magazines, causing an explosion that sank her. Late in the day, the Iranian frigate Sabalan departed from its berth and fired a surface-to-air missile at several A-6Es. The A-6Es then dropped a Mark 82 laser-guided bomb into the Sabalan's stack, crippling the ship and leaving it burning. The frigate, stern partially submerged, was taken in tow by an Iranian tug, and eventually returned to service. The aircraft, as ordered, did not continue the attack.

In retaliation for the attacks, Iran fired Silkworm missiles (suspected to be the HY-4 version) from land bases, but all missed due to the evasive maneuvers and use of decoys by the ships. The Pentagon and the Reagan Administration later denied that any Silkworm missile attacks took place, probably since it was the only way to keep the situation from escalating further.

Following the attack on the Sabalan, US forces were ordered to assume a de-escalatory posture, giving Iran a way out and avoiding further combat. Iran took the offer and combat ceased, though both sides remained on alert, and near-clashes occurred throughout the night and into the next day. Two days after the battle, the Lynde McCormick was directed to escort a US oiler through the Strait of Hormuz, while a Scandinavian-flagged merchant remained near. While the ships remained alert, no hostile indications were received, and the clash was over.

By the end of the operation, US air and surface units had sunk, or severely damaged, half of Iran's operational fleet and destroyed naval and intelligence facilities on 2 inoperable oil platforms. The US suffered 2 casualties, the crew of a Marine AH-1T Sea Cobra helicopter gunship. The Cobra was flying reconnaissance from the Wainwright and crashed sometime after dark about 15 miles southwest of Abu Musa island. The battle marked the US Navy's first exchange of anti-ship missiles with opposing ships and the only occasion since World War II on which the US Navy sank a major surface combatant.

[Ennath]

707
Siege of Tyana

In 692, the Byzantine emperor Justinian II (r. 685-95 and 705-11) and the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705) broke the truce that had existed between Byzantium and the Caliphate since 679. The Byzantines secured great financial and territorial advantages from the truce, which they extended further by exploiting the Muslim Civil War (680-92). However, by 692 the Umayyads were clearly emerging as the victors of the civil war, and Abd al-Malik began provocations to bring about a resumption of warfare. Justinian, confident in his own strength based on his previous successes, responded in kind. Finally, the Umayyads claimed that the Byzantines had broken the treaty and invaded Byzantine territory, defeating the imperial army at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 693. In its aftermath, the Arabs quickly regained control over Armenia and resumed their attacks into the border zone of eastern Asia Minor. Furthermore, Justinian was deposed in 695, beginning a 20-year period of internal instability that almost brought the Byzantine state to its knees.

As part of these raids, an invasion under a certain Maimun al-Gurgunami (Maimun the Mardaite") took place, which raided Cilicia and was defeated by a Byzantine army under a general named Marianus near Tyana. The dating of this expedition is unclear; although the primary account, by al-Baladhuri, places it under Abd al-Malik (who died in 705), it is commonly dated to 706 by modern scholars. According to Baladhuri, this Maimun had been a slave of Caliph Muawiyah's sister, who had fled to the Mardaites, a group of Christian rebels in northern Syria. After the Mardaites had been subdued, the general Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, who had heard of his valor, liberated him and entrusted him with a military command, and later swore to avenge his death. As a result, Maslama launched another attack in 707 aimed at Tyana, with his nephew al-Abbas ibn al-Walid as co-commander.

The Arabs laid siege to the city, employing siege engines to bombard its fortifications. They managed to destroy part of the wall, but were unable to enter the city. Despite several assaults, the defenders successfully drove them back. The siege continued into winter, and the Arabs began to suffer greatly from shortages of food, and contemplated abandoning the siege altogether. In spring 708, however, Justinian II, who had been restored to the Byzantine throne, assembled a relief army under the generals Theodore Karteroukas and Theophylact Salibas and sent it towards Tyana. The Byzantine chroniclers record that the regular troops were complemented by armed peasants, numerous but lacking training or experience. Modern historians consider this an indication of the dire situation of the regular Byzantine army, partly as a result of Justinian's purge of the officer corps after his restoration, and partly due to the losses suffered in the war with the Bulgars.

As the relief army approached Tyana, it was confronted by the Arabs and routed. According to Theophanes, the 2 Byzantine generals quarreled, and their attack was disorderly. The Byzantines lost thousands dead, and the captives also numbered in the thousands. The Arabs captured the Byzantine camp and took all the provisions they had brought along for the beleaguered city, allowing them to continue the siege. The inhabitants of Tyana now despaired of any succor, and as their own supplies dwindled they began negotiations. The Arabs promised to allow them to depart unharmed, and the city capitulated after a siege of 9 months. Theophanes reports that the Arabs broke their promise and enslaved the entire population, which was deported to the Caliphate. After looting the town, the Arabs razed it to the ground.

The chroniclers report that after sacking Tyana, Abbas and Maslama divided their forces and campaigned in Byzantine territory. Abbas raided Cilicia and from there turned west as far as Dorylaion, while Maslama seized the fortresses of Kamouliana and Heraclea Cybistra near Tyana, or, according to another interpretation of the Arabic sources, marched also west and took Heraclea Pontica and Nicomedia, while some of his troops raided Chrysopolis across from Constantinople itself. Arab raids continued for the next years, and were carried out even while a huge army under Maslama was besieging Constantinople in 717-18 (see posting). After the failure of this undertaking, Arab attacks continued, but they were now concerned with plunder and prestige, rather than conquest. Although the Umayyad attacks of the early 8th century were successful in gaining control of the border districts of Cilicia and the region around Melitene, and despite their destruction of Byzantine strongholds like Tyana, the Arabs were never able to permanently establish a presence west of the Taurus Mountains, which thus came to delineate the Arab-Byzantine frontier for the next 2 centuries.

[Ennath]

April 19, 1880
Battle of Ahmed Khel

By 1880, the Government of India was increasingly alarmed at the expense of the war in Afghanistan and its attritional effect on the Bengal and Bombay armies; worn down by the relentless attacks of the Afghan tribes on the long lines of communication.

The secret policy, devised by the Government of India, was to appoint a new Amir of Afghanistan and withdraw its armies at the first opportunity. As a preliminary, Maj. Gen. Sir Donald Stewart would march his largely Bengal Army force from Kandahar and join Roberts at Kabul, for a withdrawal down the Khyber Pass to Peshawar. A Bombay division would replace Stewart in Kandahar, which was planned to remain under British control, as a separate state from the rest of Afghanistan. Stewart marched out of Kandahar for Kabul on March 27, 1880. A force would march south from Kabul to meet him on the road at Sheikabad. Stewart’s army, totaling 7200 troops, with a similar number of camp followers, moved in 2 brigades, marching a day’s interval apart on opposite sides of the Tarnak River as far as Ghazni. The shortage of transport animals required the Indian troops to live off the countryside.

The army halted at Kelat-i-Ghilzai on April 6-7 and recommenced the march on the 8th, with signs of a gathering opposition from the Afghans. 40 miles north of Kelat, the army crossed from Kandahar province into Ghazni, the province held by Mohammed Jan and the inspirational Mullah, the Mushk-i-Alam, the Afghan commanders at the attack on the Sherpur cantonment in 1879 (see posting, Battle of Sherpur). In Ghazni Province, the Afghans made every effort to destroy or hide supplies that might be used by Stewart’s troops. The British and Indian army was now shadowed by a large force of Hazara tribesmen, who seized every opportunity to loot Afghan villages. Stewart consolidated his force, allowing the second brigade to catch up and halted at Jan Murad, 25 miles short of Ghazni, before resuming his march on April 18. The weather was hot.

On April 19, the column marched out at daybreak towards Kabul and was soon strung out along some 6 miles of road; the advance guard of 19th Bengal Lancers, 19th Bengal Native Infantry and 6 guns of the Royal Horse Artillery, commanded by Brig. Gen. Palliser, followed by Stewart with his headquarters, Hughes’ brigade, then the transport column escorted by Barter’s brigade. Beyond a village named Mashaki, the western hills curved abruptly across the line of the road. The column stopped for breakfast short of this point and Stewart was taking breakfast, when he was informed that a large force of Afghan tribesmen was in place along the hills, blocking the road north. There were, in fact, some 15,000.

Stewart sent orders back to Barter to bring up a substantial part of his brigade, still 5 miles distant, but resolved to attack without waiting to consolidate his force. The artillery deployed across the road, supported by the 2nd Punjab Cavalry and a squadron of 19th Bengal Lancers to its right rear, with the infantry facing west along the line of the road and one and a half squadrons of 19th Bengal Cavalry on the left flank.

Before Stewart’s infantry could begin its advance, a mass of Afghan tribesmen rushed over the hill and attacked the infantry line, a large force of mounted Afghans charging the 19th Bengal Lancers on the left flank. The Bengal Lancers were driven back onto the 3rd Gurkhas, throwing that regiment into confusion and the 59th Regiment was caught changing formation and without bayonets fixed. A high wind whipping up dust significantly reduced visibility, making the conditions even more difficult. For a time, there was a danger that Stewart’s force would be overwhelmed, but the infantry regiments established a solid pattern of volley firing that drove back the tribesmen. The 2nd Punjab Cavalry attacked the Afghan left flank and the 1st Punjab Cavalry, coming up from Barter’s brigade, restored the position on Stewart’s left. The musketry of the infantry, particularly of the 2nd Sikhs, inflicted heavy casualties on the Afghan tribesmen, who finally turned and fled, pursued by the Hazaras, killing all the fugitives they could catch. Stewart limited his cavalry to pursuit within the valley, before turning to the care of his casualties and the reorganization of his column.

British and Indian casualties were 115. Afghan casualties were estimated to be around 3000.

Following the battle, Stewart marched his division to Nani and sent his cavalry on to Ghazni, which they captured without resistance. After a period spent at Ghazni, Stewart marched on to Kabul and, on arrival, took over command from Roberts, as the senior general.

[Ennath]

April 20, 1744
Battle of Villafranca

1744 had opened bleakly for the Spaniards in Italy. To the south the Austrians were steadily driving back Gen. Montemar's army. Naples was threatened. Britain, with naval superiority in the Mediterranean, intervened on the side of Austria, and the Royal Navy everywhere harassed Spain's allies and frustrated Spanish war shipping. Genoa was blocked off by a British squadron, and Switzerland kept her borders closed to the passage of troops. Marching overland through allied France, the Infante Philip had easily conquered Savoy, but, starved of supplies, had been unable to advance against the Sardinians in the Alps.

On February 22, the Bourbon navies got the better of the British off Toulon (see posting). The retreat of Adm. Matthews' fleet left the sea lanes temporarily under French and Spanish control. Supplies poured into Philip's camp. 20,000 French troops under Louis François I, Prince of Conti were dispatched to combine with Philip's 20,000 Spaniards, their goal being to force a passage into Lombardy and to unite with the Spanish army in the south. On April 1, the allies crossed the Var and advanced into Nice, which fell without a fight. Villafranca lay before them.

The Sardinians, led by Vittorio Francesco Filippo di Savoia, Marquis of Susa, brother of King Charles Emmanuel III, entrenched themselves along the heights of Villafranca. Their natural defenses were formidable: the attackers, hemmed in by cliffs and precipices, faced a difficult climb up over rocks and boulders, in plain sight of Sardinian guns. The fortified camp was equipped with more than 80 guns of all calibers, landed from British ships stationed in the harbor.

Adm. Matthews, meanwhile, had returned to the area and landed a contingent of British regulars, marines, and artillery specialists to bolster the Sardinians. This force joined the Sardinians on the heights, their guns bearing down on the French against whom they had only recently declared war (Britain had been fighting a war against Spain since 1739). The allies now had 8000 men to face 30,000 Bourbon troops.

Conti's first attack was launched April 14, but was suspended because of a storm. Finally Conti made his assault on the fortified camp of Villafranca on the night of April 19-20. In the early stages, the French and Spanish were able to quickly gain the position of the collet de Villefranche, capturing or destroying 5 Sardinian battalions. Even the commander in chief, the Marquis of Susa, was taken prisoner and was replaced by Gen. Cinzano. The French and Spanish forces moved next against the positions of Mont Gros, Mont Rouge and Mont Leuze, the keys to the defensive perimeter of Villafranca. However, led by their new commander, the defenders were able to contain the attack. In particular, the regiment Kalbermatten, a Swiss unit in Sardinian service, fought a magnificent defensive action to hold Mont Leuze. At 4:00 in the afternoon the situation was restored and Conti had now exhausted all the forces at his disposal. Cinzano had the opportunity to launch an assault on the Villefranche and reoccupy the position, which was crucial as it allowed the transit of the road to Nice. This operation, conducted by principally by companies of grenadiers, achieved complete success. In the evening the Sardinians were again in the positions of the morning.

The defenders had suffered heavy losses. There were 1500 dead and wounded and 1800 prisoners, compared to 2820 Bourbon casualties, including 433 captured. Still heavily outnumbered and with only 5000 men fit for action, Cinzano preferred to abandon the fortified camp of Villafranca with the help of the British navy. On the evening of April 21, the garrison embarked aboard 33 ships escorted by 4 British warships. At dawn on the 22nd the fleet left port. The fort of Montalbano had been abandoned, but Cinzano had left a garrison of 340 in the Citadel of Villafranca, who surrendered on April 27. The Prince de Conti realized that the conquest of the Ligurian Riviera would cost several months of combat. He preferred to attack the Alps in July, an action that allowed the breakthrough of the Italian front and the siege of the city of Cuneo.