The Military History Thread

[Ennath]

May 4, 1994
Yemeni Civil War

North Yemen achieved independence from Ottoman rule in 1918; the monarchy was overthrown in 1962, establishing the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR). South Yemen was administered by the British as the colony of Aden and South Arabia until independence in 1968, becoming the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY), the Arab world’s only Marxist state. The YAR pursued a foreign policy that closely tied it to the Arab League. The PDRY became a client state of the USSR, opening the strategic port of Aden at the mouth of the Red Sea to Soviet warships in 1979. Relations between the 2 Yemens were never very cordial and a series of border clashes almost erupted into full-fledged war in the 1970s.

With the impending collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of financial subsidies in 1989, the PDRY found itself increasingly isolated, and so unification was sought with the YAR. The PDRY brought both Aden’s port and considerable oil reserves to the new Republic of Yemen (ROY), proclaimed on May 22, 1990. The move promised a brighter future for one of the Arab world’s poorest countries.

The ROY’s provisional president, Ali Abdullah Saleh, had ruled the YAR since 1979, while the prime minister, Haydar Bakr al-Attas, was from the DPRY. Only a few months after its installation, the transition government protested the presence of foreign military forces massed in Saudi Arabia to counter Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. The Saudis then expelled 850,000 Yemeni workers, increasing ROY unemployment and adding to the new nation’s economic problems. Political turmoil forced the government to postpone elections, which were finally held on April 27, 1993. The General People’s Congress (GPC), the former ruling party of the YAR, won 121 seats in parliament. The Yemen Socialist Party (YSP), the former ruling party of the DPRY, won 56 seats. A new Islamic coalition party, al-Islah, won 62 seats. The remaining 62 seats were won by minor parties and independents. The president and prime minister remained in office after the election, and the 3 major parties formed a coalition in the legislature.

Relations between Vice-President Ali Salem Beidh (former PDRY) and Saleh deteriorated during negotiations for a power sharing arrangement in April 1994. Beidh moved from the capital at Sana’a back to Aden, taking many of his supporters in the government. Beidh said he would not return to the government until his grievances were addressed. These included northern violence against his YSP, as well as the economic marginalization of the south. Attempts at reconciliation by various Arab leaders, including King Hussein of Jordan, were doomed to failure, when a series of political assassinations aimed at Beidh allies created an irrevocable breach. During the growing tensions, both the northern and southern armies - which had never integrated - gathered on their respective frontiers. On April 27, a major tank battle erupted in Amran, near San'a. Both sides accused the other of starting it. Both were clearly preparing for a showdown.

On May 4, southern planes bombed parts of North Yemen. Using this as a pretext, Saleh launched his planned attack the next day, sending planes to bomb Aden, and declaring a state of emergency. Fighting erupted along the old border later that day. Communication lines were shut down, the airports closed, and Western governments ordered their nationals out of the country. Saleh had planned a lightning strike against Aden, intending to capture the southern capital in a matter of days before outside mediation by the Gulf Cooperation Council, Arab League and United Nations could begin. This proved to be an overly optimistic forecast. Thanks to past Soviet largess, the south’s air force was twice as large as the north’s and its MiG-21s and MiG-29s dominated the skies almost to the end of the war. The southward advance of Saleh’s army was not only hampered by the lack of air support, but by the terrain. Yemen’s mountains are some of the most treacherous in the world and the countless narrow passes and defiles gave the southerners excellent defensive positions.

The south launched a barrage of 15 SCUD missiles at Sana’a on the war’s 5th day. As in Desert Storm, the SCUDs hit nothing they were aimed at, coming to earth all over the city. One landed in a residential area, killing 25 and wounding another 50. Saleh replied with a pair of SCUDs at Aden, neither of which reached the city. SCUDs continued to rain on Sana’a; 13 more were fired the following week.

The north’s numerical superiority began to be felt by the war’s 2nd week as the key city of Al Daleh fell to advancing forces. Beidh effectively declared a levee en masse and ordered the arming of civilians. In Yemen’s mountains, fierce artillery and rocket battles flared over the front lines. The key to the defense of Aden was the military “city” at Al Anad, the joint command center for southern operations, a mere 38 miles from Aden. A second front was opened toward Mukalla, capital of the eastern Hadramaut Province and center of the south’s oil production.

With military operations going against him, Beidh declared the secession of South Yemen as the independent Yemen Democratic Republic on May 22, the 4th anniversary of unification. The move was primarily a political one, aimed at gaining tacit recognition, allowing negotiations to proceed between the 2 factions as equals. Saleh rejected the claim and responded with a third prong on May 30 in the northwest area near Lehij. Southern military commanders publicly admitted they had ignored this area of the front and were unable to respond. Al Anad, flanked from 2 sides, fell the next day.

On June 1, the UN Security Council called for a cease fire. Saleh replied by launching the north’s first air attacks against Aden since the start of the war. Five days later, northern artillery shells were falling in Aden’s northernmost suburbs. The southern capital was cut off as northern units formed a semi-circle around the rebel coastal capital. Fierce resistance bogged down the advance an, on June 6, Saleh offered a cease fire on the condition that Beidh be surrendered for trial. Not surprisingly, the offer was rejected, though Beidh did leave Aden, establishing a new seat of government at Mukalla.

Northern units advanced into Aden amid heavy street fighting, eventually reducing the rebel-held area of the city to the Old Town, a peninsula that juts out into the sea. The final days saw both sides using rockets and heavy artillery to hammer each other’s positions. The 3000 remaining defenders surrendered the city on July 8; Beidh and other southern leaders fled to nearby Oman. President Saleh now had control over all of Yemen. A general amnesty was declared, except for 16 southern figures.

YSP leaders within Yemen reorganized following the civil war and elected a new politburo in July 1994. However, much of its influence had been destroyed in the war. President Saleh was elected by Parliament on October 1, 1994 to a 5-year term. However, he remained in office until 2012.

As of 2007, a group called the South Yemen Movement, calling for the secession of the south and the re-establishment of an independent state has grown in strength across many parts of south Yemen, leading to an increase in tensions and often violent clashes.

[Ennath]

May 5, 1917
Battle of Crna Bend

The strategic situation in the early spring of 1917 on all European theaters of war, except the Romanian portion of the Eastern Front, favored the implementation of the Allied offensive plans that were adopted during the inter-allied conference of November 1916 held in Chantilly, France. These plans included an offensive on the Macedonian Front designed to support main the Allied efforts on the other fronts and if possible completely defeat Bulgaria. The Bulgarians, for their part, asked the Germans to join an offensive against Salonika, but the German High Command refused and forced the adoption of a purely defensive stance on the Balkan Front.

The commander of the Allied armies on the Salonika Front, Gen. Maurice Sarrail, commenced preparations for the offensive as soon as he received his orders. By early spring 1917 he produced a general plan that envisaged a main attack by Serbian 2nd Army and at least two secondary attacks - the first by the British to the east of the Vardar and the second by the Italians and French in the Crna Bend. French and Greek forces west of the Vardar were also to undertake aggressive action. The commander of the French Army of the East Gen. Paul Grossetti informed his superior that his forces would need at least 40 days to prepare, which forced Sarrail to set the start of the offensive for April 12. Bad weather conditions, however, forced him to delay the start date several times until it was determined that the British main attack should commence on April 24 and the rest on April 30. Accordingly, the British began the 2nd Battle of Doiran on schedule but were soon forced to call off their attacks as it became clear that the rest of the Allies were not able to deliver their attacks on time. The dates for the attacks were finally set for May 5 in the Crna Bend and May 8 in the Serbian and British sectors.

In the Crna Bend sector the planned attack was assigned to the left of the French Army of the East - the so-called 1st Group of Divisions (Gen. Georges Lebouc) - and the Italian Expeditionary Force. Its primary task was to penetrate all Bulgarian-German lines in the direction of Prilep and thus threaten the rear of the Bulgarian forces around the Vardar and Monastir. Sarrail had surveyed the area and determined that the Italians and French should deliver a frontal assault against almost the entire length of the defensive line which caused serious doubts among the Italian and French commanders. In order to strengthen the Allies, Sarrail also attached a Russian infantry brigade a few days before the attack.

The Bulgarians and Germans were well aware of the impending offensive and decided to rely on the strength of their well prepared fortifications, strong artillery and machine gun fire while placing as many troops as possible in the first lines and preparing sufficient reserves in case of a breakthrough. The task of the defenders was to preserve their positions and protect the important lines of communication running along the Gradsko-Prilep road. On February 12, the Germans had already launched a successful attack on Italian forces west of Hill 1050 using flamethrowers. Italian counterattacks the next day and on February 27, were only partly successful.

The Crna Bend was considered one of the most important sectors on the Macedonian Front and was always strongly guarded. The Central Powers forces in the area were part of the 62nd Corps of the German-Bulgarian 11th Army, both formations commanded by German generals and staff. The first-line units assigned to the sector, along a 15 mile front, were the German 302nd Division and the 22nd German-Bulgarian Brigade. These occupied a generally well fortified line. The troops were well supplied with ammunition and their morale was high.

On May 5, 1917, 91 Italian and French batteries (372 guns and heavy mortars) opened fire along the entire attack front. The barrage lasted for the entire day and had mixed effects, depending on the ground and strength of the fortifications. With the coming of the night the Allied fire was significantly reduced in intensity which gave a chance to the defenders to repair part of the inflicted damage. At 0600 on May 6, the Allied artillery renewed its bombardment throughout the entire day. This time however the Allies also sent patrols to check the effect of the bombardment and test the strength of the fortifications. The Bulgarians and Germans managed to hold off attempts to close on the lines by strong infantry and artillery fire. On this day the Central Powers artillery took a more active part in the battle and often engaged in counter-infantry and counter-battery work with the help of German reconnaissance planes. In the morning on May 7, the Allies renewed their bombardment once again. On this day the barrage was even more powerful; stronger reconnaissance patrols were dispatched but were once again held off. The defenders sent out their own patrols to determine where an attack would come. The results of the 3-day barrage proved unsatisfactory and Grossetti decided that it should be continued on May 8 with the help of 4 observation balloons. The day for the main infantry attack was finally set for the May 9. At precisely 0630 on the 9th, the Italian, French and Russian infantry moved out of their trenches and advanced against the Bulgarian and German positions along an 7-mile front.

Italian 35th Division attacked German 201st Brigade and Bulgarian 2/2 Brigade. The focal points were the powerful positions on Hill 1020 and Hill 1050. On the right, 61st Regiment occupied an abandoned trench, but was ejected by a Bulgarian counterattack. Other elements overran the first line held by German 9th Jäger Battalion and broke into the second line. However, fire from flanking positions on the 2 hills caused heavy losses and a German-Bulgarian counterattack regained control of the lost positions. 161st Regiment attacked in the center, tasked with taking Hill 1050. Again, minor gains were wiped out by counterattacks. On the right , 162nd Regiment suffered much the same fate. A second attack at 0945 did no better. By midday the attack had died out and Gen. Pennella postponed it.

The 16th French Colonial Infantry Division, neighboring the Italian 35th Division to its east, was ordered to attack Bulgarian 3/7 Brigade and parts of the German 201st Brigade. 8th Regiment’s assault was quickly repulsed. 4th Regiment in the center managed to get close to the defenders, as many Bulgarian observers had been killed or wounded; the few survivors, however, managed to fire their flares and alert the defense. The attack failed. 37th Regiment on the right had better luck and took a stretch of trench and held off initial counterattacks, but as more and more Bulgarian and German reserves were drawn in, the French were forced back to the start line. A second attack at 0900 had no better result. Further east was French 17th Colonial Division, facing 22nd German-Bulgarian Brigade in conjunction with the Russians. However, three French attacks made no progress.

Of the 18 battalions detailed to attack 22nd German-Bulgarian Brigade, 6 belonged to the Russian 2nd Independent Brigade of Gen. Dietrichs. This brigade was added at the last minute. It occupied the front between 16th and 17th colonial Divisions. Their assault hit German 42nd Regiment on “Heintselam” and “Dabica” Hills. At Heintselman, the attack faltered, but the attack at Dabica penetrated the German trenches and, by 0800, controlled the hill. Unfortunately for the Russians, the failure of neighboring French attacks enabled the Germans and Bulgarians to hold off any attempt to exploit this success; furthermore this exposed position was being flanked on both sides. At 1730, the Russians launched a new attack on Heintselman, while 17th Colonial Division attacked the neighboring “Caesar” position, preceded by a brief, but powerful, barrage. The Caesar assault failed completely, The Russians managed to close, but were repelled. By 1800, the attack was called off. Despite this setback, the Russians continued to hold Dabica, but the initiative was now in German and Bulgarian hands. At 1940, 22nd Brigade began an attack to recover the hill and cleared it by 2010. The Allied attack was over.

The Bulgarians suffered 1626 casualties; German losses are unknown, but were probably heavy as German units were usually in the thick of the fighting. Allied casualties were some 2400 Italian, 1700 French and 1300 Russian, for no gain at all.

Despite the failure, Sarrail was not ready to give up on his offensive and new attacks were made by the Italians and French in the Crna Bend on May 11 and 17, which ended in failure. Finally, following French defeat around Monastir and the British defeat at Lake Doiran, he called off the entire offensive on May 21.

[Ennath]

May 6, 1622
Battle of Wimpfen

In early 1622, the Protestant armies of Ernst von Mansfeld and Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Baden, were attempting to unite, giving them the strength to relieve pressure on the Palatinate. Count Johann Tilly faced the task of defeating the enemy before they could join up. New recruits had raised his strength to 20,000 men and he prepared to besiege the Palatinate’s capital at Heidelberg.

Mansfeld, with Elector Frederick of the Palatinate, crossed the Rhine at Germersheim and plundered his way across the bishopric of Speyer, but found Tilly’s position at Wiesloch too strong. He fell back, hoping to be reinforced by Georg Friedrich. However, Tilly attacked before they had gone far and a fierce battle developed on April 27. Tilly was defeated with the loss of 2000 men.

The advantage now lay with the Protestants as Georg Friedrich joined his allies at Sinsheim on the 29th to raise their strength to 30,000. They wasted time besieging the small town of Eppingen, failing to crush Tilly before he was joined by the Spanish force of Gonzalo de Cordoba, numbering 5300. Short of supplies, Mansfeld moved to attack the Spanish garrison at Ladenburg, that blocked the road between Mannheim and Heidelberg, leaving a few regiments behind to give Georg Friedrich a strength of 12,700. Tilly dissuaded Cordoba from abandoning Ladenburg, convincing him to attack instead. Baden was unaware of the Spanish arrival and overconfident.

The allies spent the night of May 5 deploying on a wooded hill south of Wimpfen. Cordoba took the place of honor on the right, while Tilly’s 12,900 Catholic League troops occupied the left. The overnight rain had cleared, leaving hot and sunny weather the following morning and the artillery opened a bombardment of the Baden army to the south. Georg Friedrich had chosen a bad position in the right angle formed by the Neckar and the marshy Bollinger stream to his rear, with a wood on his left and his right at Ober Eisesheim village, by the river. The entire front was covered by 70 wagons, some mounting small cannon, protecting 2000 musketeers, but with little chance for retreat if things went wrong.

Tilly and Cordoba began a general advance at 11 AM, but were forced back by heavy fire and retired to the shade of the trees. Georg Friedrich also broke for lunch, recalling his outposts, including those in the wood to his left. Cordoba immediately occupied this with Spanish musketeers. The battle resumed as Georg Friedrich sent infantry to retake the wood, while launching most of his cavalry in a surprise attack from Ober Eisesheim. Their advance was screened by the thick clouds of smoke from the ineffectual artillery and dust thrown up by skirmishers riding between the armies. Several Catholic League regiments broke and fled and the entire left began to give way as Georg Friedrich’s riders fanned out along the hill, capturing the artillery. However, they now ran up against the Schmidt regiment, which formed a hedgehog, pikes pointing in all directions, standing firm.

Georg Friedrich’s cavalry lost cohesion as some swarmed around the Schmidt regiment, while others dashed after the units that had broken earlier. His infantry were still stuck behind their wagons, too far away to assist. Meanwhile, Cordoba’s musketeers had worked their way around the far end of the line and were threatening the Protestant rear. Numbers and experience gradually prevailed as the League and Spanish cavalry regrouped and pushed their opponents off the field by late afternoon. The infantry launched a final assault around 7 PM on the wagon line. Despite being mainly militia, the Baden infantry resisted stoutly, the final detachment surrendering at 9 PM. The assault cost the Catholics 1800 casualties, but Georg Friedrich’s army had ceased to exist. A quarter were killed or captured and about half dispersed, leaving barely 3000 to join Mansfeld, who finally captured Ladenburg on May 8.

[Ennath]

1616
Uskok War

The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the early years of the 16th century drove large numbers of ethnic Croats and Serbs from their homes, which in the town of Klis prompted the formation of the Uskok bands. In 1522 the border territory of Senj was taken over by the Habsburgs, forming a state-controlled Military Frontier, including Klis. Austrian Emperor Ferdinand I instituted a system of planting colonies along this frontier. The Uskoks were promised an annual subsidy in return for their services. They used the base at Klis both to hold the Turks at bay, and to engage in marauding and piracy against coastal shipping. Although nominally accepting the sovereignty of the Habsburg Emperor, the freebooting Uskoks were a law unto themselves. On March 12, 1537, Klis surrendered to the Ottomans; the Uskoks went to the city of Senj on the Adriatic coast, where they continued fighting the Ottomans. Ottoman raids brought Senj natives together with those from the Habsburg lands, Dalmatians, Ragusans and Italians.

The new Uskok stronghold, screened by mountains and forests, was unassailable by cavalry or artillery. However, the fortress was admirably suitable to the lightly armed Uskoks who were excellent in guerrilla warfare. Since they were checked on land and were rarely paid their annual subsidy, they resorted to piracy. Large galleys could not anchor in the bay of Senj, which is shallow and exposed to sudden gales. So, the Uskoks fitted out a fleet of swift boats, light enough to navigate the creeks and inlets of the shores of Illyria. With these they were able to attack numerous commercial areas on the Adriatic. In addition to attacking Turkish ships, they attacked Venetian merchantmen. They saw their ranks swell as outlaws from all nations joined them. Eventually, the whole city of Senj lived from piracy. The expeditions were blessed in the local church and the monasteries received tithes from the loot.

Although the Venetians tried to protect their shipping with escorts, watchtowers and other protective measures, the cost became prohibitive. They launched a diplomatic campaign for allies, since the Uskoks were vassals of Archduke Ferdinand of Inner Austria (who was likely to seek help from the Holy Roman Emperor Matthias, his uncle, and King Philip III of Spain, his brother-in-law). In September 1615, Count John Ernest of Nassau-Siegen agreed to raise 3000 men in the Dutch Republic for Venetian service. They arrived in May 1617, followed 6 months later by another 2000 with a contingent of English volunteers. Spanish support was blocked at sea by a flotilla of 12 Dutch and 10 English warships, and on land by a war in Mantua.

The conflict began in January 1616 in Collio, where an Uskok garrison supported the Austrian faction, defying the Venetians. A Venetian fleet was repulsed from Hapsburg-held Trieste. Later in the year, Uskoks led by the Count of Tersato plundered Monfalcone; the Venetian garrison was restricted to the citadel. Local Venetian administrators raised 3000 militia in Friuli and counterattacked, forcing the Hapsburgs to abandon several towns to defend stronger positions. The Uskoks retaliated by plundering the surrounding villages.

The war extended into the Alps, and the Venetians plundered Kobarid and Tolmin Schmit, an English mercenary captain hired by the bishop of Bamberg, took Pontebba on August 8.. A Venetian counterattack retook it 5 days later. The Austrians, weakened by illness, lost a third of their army and retreated across the Isonzo; the Venetians occupied Lucenico.

John Ernest of Nassau landed in Monfalcone in spring 1617, increasing the Venetian forces to 20,000 men and they prepared to go on the offensive. At the beginning of June, Giovanni de Medici moved to Monfalcone, and Giovanni Martinego moved from through Cassegliano to San Pier d'Isonzo. The right wing of Ferdinand Scotus’ cavalry moved through Fratta and Monfalcone to Vermegliano, where he was joined by Orazio Baglioni’s infantry. The Dutch advanced towards the Karst Plateau; brothers Francis and Charles Strassoldotook up positions between Farra and Mainizza. At dawn on 2 June the Dutch occupied San Martino del Carso, and the Austrians abandoned their positions between Gradisca and the plateau to the Venetians. Six galleys attacked Duino Castle. The following day the Dutch overran Forte Delle Donne (on Monte San Michele), opening a gap after the arrival of Martinego’s artillery; its 42 defenders surrendered. On June 5, the 400 men at Fort Imperial surrendered to the Dutch in exchange for free passage. The Venetians built several small reduits, emplacing 40 guns and preparing a final assault on Rubbia (the Austrian headquarters).

The Austrians repulsed assaults on Rubbia on June 9-12, and the Venetians blockaded Gradisca. The besiegers, especially the Dutch, were weakened by disease, while the Austrians were reinforced and launched attacks on the Venetian blockade lines. A force under Albrecht von Wallenstein ran supplies into the besieged fortress.

Although Archduke Ferdinand had only 4000 soldiers to defend Gradisca, he received military, political and financial support from the Spanish as part of a larger agreement: Philip agreed to fight the Venetians and support Ferdinand as the next Holy Roman Emperor in return for the cession of Alsace, and Piombino. This led to a negotiated settlement between Ferdinand and the Venetians in which many Uskok pirates were executed or exiled, and a permanent Austrian garrison was installed in Senj.

There was a growing desire for peace on both sides. In anticipation of problems in Germany, Ferdinand wanted to end the war with Venice. In any case, Venice was also uncommitted to the war, largely due to fear of direct Spanish intervention. On November 6, a truce was signed and demobilization soon began. The Treaty of Madrid stipulated that the Uskoks be removed from the coastal territories and sent to inland portions of the Military Frontier. The Venetians restored to Austria the places they had captured in Istria and Friuli.

[Ernesto75]

The sack of Rome by German and Spanish mercenaries.

The army of the Holy Roman Emperor (Habsburg dynasty) where without pay and they mutinied.
They forced their commander, Captain General Bourbon, to led them towards Rome.

On the morning of May 6th, 1527, Captain General Bourbon launched a series of attacks on Rome.
During one of them, at the Torrione Gate, while leading the assault of the walls, he himself was mortally wounded.
After just a moment's hesitation, the Spanish mercenaries broke through the Torrione Gate, while the German lansquenets invaded the road of Borgo Santo Spirito and St. Peter's.

The Swiss Guard, standing firm at the foot of the obelisk (now in St. Peter's Square, but then near the German cemetery within the Vatican close to the Basilica), together with the few remnants of the Roman troops, resisted desperately.

Their Captain, Kaspar Röist was wounded, and later killed by the Spaniards in his quarters in front of his wife, Elizabeth Klingler.

Of the 189 Swiss Guards, only 42 survived, the ones who, when all was lost, under the command of Hercules Göldli guarded Clement VII’s retreat to safety in Castel Sant’Angelo.
The rest fell gloriously, massacred together with two hundred fugitives, on the steps of the High Altar in St. Peter's Basilica.
Pope Clement VII and his men were able to escape to safety, thanks to the "Passetto", a secret corridor which Pope Alexander VI had built along the top of the wall connect*ing the Vatican with Castel Sant’Angelo.

The sack of Rome by Frunsberg's lansquenets and Spaniards lasted 8 days, with extreme savagery.
There were as many as 12 000 killed and the booty is evaluated to 10 million ducats.

On June 5th Clement VII surrendered and had to accept heavy conditions: he had to cede several fortresses, hand over the cities of Modena, Parma and Piacenza, and pay 4 thousand ducats.
Moreover a ransom for the freedom of prisoners was demanded.

This event marked the end of the Roman Renaissance, damaged the papacy's prestige and freed Charles V's hands to act against the Reformation in Germany and against the rebellious German princes allied with Luther.

In commemoration of the Sack and the Guard's bravery, recruits to the Swiss Guard are sworn in on 6 May every year.

[Ennath]

May 7, 1942
Battle of the Coral Sea

By April 1942, the Japanese had formed a defensive perimeter which stretched from the Kuriles southward through the Marshall Islands to New Britain, then westwards to Java, Sumatra, the Andaman Islands and Burma. In the South-West Pacific Area outposts were held at Lae and Salamaua in northern New Guinea. Yet the Japanese were not quite satisfied. Impressed by the ease of their conquests, a number of leaders began to consider extending the perimeter to gain an extra measure of security.

In the South Pacific the Japanese Army was keen to extend the perimeter to provide defense in greater depth for the base at Rabaul and also to cut the lines of communication between Australia and the United States. Japanese doctrine held that advances should always be made under cover of land-based aircraft. This doctrine governed the choice of new targets and had been rigidly adhered to in operations so far. Techniques had been developed to bring newly captured airfields into use as quickly as possible. In this context the Solomon Islands could be seen either as an opportunity for expansion south to New Caledonia, the New Hebrides and Fiji, or as a highway for an Allied offensive aimed at Rabaul. Port Moresby in Australian Papua was also in air striking range of Rabaul and the Japanese were becoming concerned with the build up of Allied air power in the area. Conversely, its occupation would lead to Japanese aerial dominance of north-eastern Australia.

Consequently the Japanese put in train Operation MO, directed at Tulagi in the southern Solomon Islands and Port Moresby. The successful occupation of the two key positions would set up bases necessary for the control of the air space and waters in the lowers Solomon Islands chain as well as for the interception of Allied shipping in northern Australia. The lower Solomon Islands chain also provided security for a planned occupation of the Nauru and Ocean islands, which were rich in phosphate. Since most of Japan’s available carriers were under preparation for Operation MI (Midway) and Operation AL (Aleutians), Operation MO was to be supported by a relatively modest fleet centered around 2 fleet carriers, Shokaku and Zuikaku, supported by one light carrier, Shoho; the fleet was placed under the command of Vice Adm. Shigeyoshi Inoue. During late April and early May these forces began their movement south.

As the Japanese made their preparations, the US Navy, forewarned by signals intelligence, made their dispositions to counter it. On May 1, 2 carrier task forces, TF17, built around USS Yorktown (Rear Adm. Frank Fletcher), with 3 heavy cruisers and 6 destroyers (one escorting an oiler), and TF11 consisting of USS Lexington (Rear Adm. Aubrey Fitch), 2 heavy cruisers and 7 destroyers rendezvoused off Espiritu Santo. From Sydney TF44, consisting of the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia and light cruiser HMAS Hobart, under the command of Rear Adm. J. G. Crace, RN, departed Sydney (eventually to join the carriers on May 4). The cruiser USS Chicago and a destroyer, also part of TF44, came up from Noumea.

When the Japanese landed at Tulagi on May 3, covered by the Shoho group, and established a seaplane base, Fitch and Fletcher were each hundreds of miles from the Solomon Islands for refueling, not realizing that the Japanese operation had already begun. Fletcher came to the realization and raced toward Tulagi without waiting for Fitch. He detached his oiler and its escorting destroyer and proceeded north at high speed.

Japanese warships broke off with the landing force early in order to prepare for the landing operations at Port Moresby. The battle started with Fletcher launching 28 dive bombers and 12 torpedo bombers against the landing force in Tulagi, damaging a destroyer beyond repair and sinking 3 minesweepers. Realizing that the Japanese would now be aware that there was at least one American carrier in the area, Fletcher quickly retired southwards through the night to rejoin TF11 at dawn on May 5 in a position some 400 miles south of Tulagi. This force had been joined by TF44 the previous day. The Allied force spent the day replenishing. Meanwhile, the Japanese Carrier Strike Force had moved rapidly down the eastern flank of the Solomons and by midday on the 5th they were to the east of San Christobal Island, covering what they anticipated to be the US carriers’ line of retreat. Traditionally, American carrier task forces had rapidly cleared the area after a raid.

All through May 6, the opposing forces remained in ignorance of each other's whereabouts. While the Japanese land-based bombers from Rabaul attacked Port Moresby to soften up defenses for the invasion, carrier aircraft from both sides searched without success for opposing carriers, even as the two fleets were less than 80 miles from each other near the end of the day. US land-based B-17s did find the Shoho, but the subsequent attack failed to cause any damage.

In the morning of May 7, Japanese patrol planes detected the oiler USS Neosho and misidentified her as a carrier. Rear Adm. Tadaichi Hara, in tactical command of Zuikaku and Shokaku, launched aircraft to attack, disabling Neosho (scuttled on the 11th) and sinking the destroyer Sims. On the return trip, bombs already expended, the Japanese aircraft stumbled upon the US fleet carriers, and it was the Americans' turn to make a misidentification error, turning on landing lights for the aircraft; indeed some of the Japanese aviators, not expecting to run into US carriers, attempted to land on Yorktown. The confusion was quickly cleared up as Yorktown’s gunners spotted the rising suns on the aircraft at about 250 yards and opened fire. It was not until then the Japanese realized that Neosho must not be the carrier they were looking for.

Around noon, Fletcher’s task force was attacked by Japanese aircraft after some of his cruisers detached to attack the landing convoy. During the engagement, Fletcher’s aircraft reported the discovery of Japanese carriers to the northwest, but these were actually merchant ships. The Americans had expected the Japanese fleet to come from that direction (in fact, the Japanese were located to the north), thus this discovery quickly led to the false conclusion that they had found the main Japanese fleet. Although this mistake seemed to mirror that of the Japanese regarding Neosho, the Americans were luckier, as the carrier aircraft sent to attack the merchantmen stumbled on the Shoho. The attack spurred an intense aerial engagement that lasted into the night, and Shoho was sunk after suffering 7 torpedo hits and 13 bomb hits. While the loss of the ship was important, the loss of aircraft were minimal since most of her aircraft were in the air and were able to land on other carriers or at nearby land bases. Not knowing that the two fleets were very close, the admirals of both sides both backed off during the night.

In the morning of May 8, both the Americans and the Japanese launched about 120 aircraft against the other. The US aircraft found their targets first, hitting Shokaku with 2 bombs, starting a fire; the attack cost the Americans 43 aircraft. Shokaku’s damage control crew put down the fire, and her captain turned for home. The Japanese attack also found its target, scoring a hit on Yorktown with an 800-pound bomb and on Lexington with 2 bombs. Lexington’s fuel lines ruptured, leaking fumes that eventually caused a chain of explosions. Lexington was abandoned and scuttled as the fire burned beyond control.

Having learned that Inoue had turned back the carrier fleet, Japanese fleet commander Yamamoto angrily sent a radio message to ask for Inoue’s reasoning. Receiving no response, he sent an order for Inoue to turn around and go back on the offensive. When Inoue complied, it was too late; by the time his ships returned to the Coral Sea and launched their reconnaissance aircraft, the US warships had already departed.

The final score of the Battle of Coral Sea looked bad for the Americans, and Japan promptly declared it a victory. However, the victory was only tactical. Strategically, Japan lost offensive momentum, and Operation MO was no placed on hold indefinitely; Chief of Staff of the Combined Fleet Matome Ugaki would place the blame on Inoue. Moreover, the damage suffered by Shokaku necessitated her, and thus the whole Fifth Carrier Division which included Zuikaku, to be removed from the front lines for repairs, thus making this division unavailable for Operation MI against Midway Atoll.

The battle was the first naval engagement in history in which the participating ships never sighted or fired directly at each other. Instead, aircraft acted as the offensive artillery for the ships involved.

[Ennath]

May 8, 1864
Battle of Spotsylvania

Having suffered a tactical defeat at the Wilderness (May 4-7, 1864, see posting), Union commander Gen. Ulysses Grant did not act in the same way as his predecessors in the east had done, retreating back to his camps, but instead decided to continue with the campaign. He ordered the Army of the Potomac, 100,000 men under Gen. George Meade but under Grant’s personal direction, to move east, in an attempt to get past Lee’s right flank. At this stage in the campaign, Grant’s best hope of a quick victory was to somehow get between Lee and Richmond. His target was a road junction at Spotsylvania, that if captured would mean Grant was nearer to Richmond than Lee. His hope was that if that happened, Lee would either attack, probably at great cost, or be forced to retreat from the vicinity of Richmond.

On May 7, he ordered cavalry to clear Confederate horsemen from 10 miles of the Brock Road leading from the Wilderness south to Spotsylvania Court House. After dark, the infantry and artillery began a night march, expecting to cook breakfast at the courthouse on the morning of May 8.

Lee, with about 60,000 men, weighed Grant's options and concluded that the Union general would likely either press south or withdraw east toward Fredericksburg, where he would find better supply routes. Posting his forces at Spotsylvania would let Lee cut off a southern thrust while still allowing access to roads that could take them quickly east if Grant moved in that direction. In the race for Spotsylvania, however, the Confederates were at a disadvantage: Union troops controlled the roads while Lee’s men were actually forced to hack a route through the brambles and overgrown landscape. Luckily, Gen. Richard Anderson, commanding James Longstreet’s 1st Corps after Longstreet’s wound at the Wilderness, had already moved toward Spotsylvania without orders, fleeing the previous battle’s choking fires.

Gouverneur Warren’s Union 5th Corps advanced about 4 miles to Todd’s Tavern when, after midnight on May 8, Union commanders discovered that their cavalry had been unable to drive J. E. B. Stuart’s men any farther, and had bivouacked for the night. If this was not bad enough, the cavalry had had no new orders for the day from their new commander, Philip Sheridan. A furious Meade ordered the troopers back into their saddles to continue clearing the road in the predawn hours. When they faltered, he ordered his infantry forward, leading to a full-scale engagement.

When Stuart’s men discovered that they now confronted infantry, it became clear that the Army of the Potomac was headed south. The Confederate troopers encouraged Anderson’s infantry to double-time to Spotsylvania. In the meantime, at about 8:00 AM on May 8, they made a stand on the edge of the Spindle Field about a mile north of the courthouse, throwing down some fence rails to fight behind. They held just long enough; as their lines began to buckle, the vanguard of Anderson’s corps arrived. With moments to spare the Confederates repulsed the first attack. Other units arrived in time to extend the line and throw back subsequent attacks for the remainder of the day. At times Union attacks came very close to succeeding, but the Confederate line held. They spent the night taking up positions with open field to the front, building defensive earthworks.

Meade, again furious at Sheridan, exploded at the famously feisty New Yorker, who had previously fought in the West with Grant. As short-tempered as Meade, Sheridan exploded right back. He wished to take the fight to the Confederate cavalry and wanted to be released from the usual duties of the cavalry - reconnaissance and screening the infantry. Sheridan boasted that he “could whip” Stuart “if he (Meade) would only let me.” Meade reported the conversation to Grant, who was intrigued. “Well, he generally knows what he is talking about. Let him start right out and do it.” The exchange left Meade feeling humiliated, and noticeably strained his relations with Grant. Meanwhile, Grant's decision to let Sheridan have his way and chase after Stuart ended up harming the Army of the Potomac, which needed its cavalry to screen its movements and provide intelligence. Although Sheridan eventually whipped Stuart at Yellow Tavern, leaving Stuart mortally wounded, Grant was forced over the next several days to base his plans on imperfect information.

The next day, May 9, Confederate officers realized that they had formed a salient, or U-shaped bulge, in their line that was nicknamed the Mule Shoe by the men. At first, Lee wanted to abandon the salient, but other officers convinced him that it could be held if properly supported by artillery. Although the Confederates retained the Mule Shoe as the main line, Lee ordered construction of new line across the base of the salient.

Numerous engagements were fought along the lines as the Union troops came up. On May 9, Gen. John Sedgewick, commanding Union 6th Corps, was killed by a sharpshooter, the highest-ranking Union casualty of the war. One of the more consequential fights involved a young West Point-educated Union colonel named Emory Upton (later a noted army reformer), who concluded that attacking well-constructed works required a new way of fighting. Rather than attack in long lines of infantry that halted in the open in order to exchange fire with a well-protected enemy, Upton argued for storming columns that never stopped to fire, but advanced right up to the earthworks, engaging with the bayonet. He tested his new tactics as part of an all-out attack on the evening of May 10. They worked, but when supporting troops failed to arrive, Upton was forced to retreat. Grant was impressed, however, promoting Upton to brigadier general and deciding to duplicate the maneuver on a larger scale, with the support troops directly behind the assault column.

On the rainy night of May 11, Union troops went into position to attack the apex of the Mule Shoe. In addition to this, the Confederates observed Union wagons and ambulances going toward Fredericksburg. Lee concluded that the Union army was marching away from Spotsylvania and his impressive works. He therefore determined to strike Grant’s men when they were on the move. Because the rain could turn dirt roads into mud and slow his planned pursuit, Lee decided to move his artillery out of the salient before the storm turned any worse. After the cannons had been extracted, the Confederates concluded that the Union troops had not continued on to Fredericksburg after all, but had stopped opposite the apex of the Mule Shoe. The Confederate artillery started back to the front lines.

At 4:30 AM on May 12, 15,000 men of Union 2nd Corps (Winfield Scott Hancock) advanced with bayonets fixed across a fog-shrouded field, just as the Confederates were returning their cannons to their positions. About 20 guns were captured - some without firing a shot. In a short time, Hancock held a half mile of the Confederate trench line and took nearly 3000 prisoners. The Union reserve troops advanced behind the attack column, but soon degenerated into a mob that did its best to proceed down the Confederate line and deal with the prisoners. Smaller-but-better-organized Confederate units launched counterattacks, stalling the advance.

Realizing that he could not repulse the Federals from the earthworks, Lee instead focused on completing the line of works at the base of the Mule Shoe and on retaking a hill where the earthworks made a slight bend. The latter place, where the fighting was horrific, became known, appropriately, as the Bloody Angle. A ravine directly in front of the poorly laid-out Confederate line offered protection for thousands of Union soldiers, from Hancock’s 2nd and Horatio Wright’s (replacing Sedgewick) 6th Corps, who repeatedly surged out to grapple with the Confederates. The battle here raged from 6:00 AM May 12 to 3:00 AM May 13, much of it hand to hand. The fighting at the Bloody Angle was some of the most intense of the war. In places, the dead piled up five deep. As night fell, some Confederates were even injured when an oak tree, 22 inches in diameter, was cut down by musket fire.

Despite the significant casualties of May 12-13, Grant was undeterred. He ordered 5th and 6th Corps to move behind the 2nd and take positions past the left flank of 9th Corps. On the night of May 13–14, the corps began a difficult march in heavy rain over treacherously muddy roads. Early on May 14, elements of the VI Corps occupied Myers Hill, which overlooked most of the Confederate line. Emory Upton’s brigade skirmished most of the day to retain possession of the high ground. Grant’s command was too scattered and exhausted to undertake an assault against Spotsylvania on May 14, which was unfortunate because Lee had left it practically undefended most of the day. When he realized what Grant was up to, Lee shifted some units from Anderson’s Corps. Grant notified Washington that, having endured 5 days of almost continuous rain, his army could not resume offensive operations until they had 24 hours of dry weather.

Grant eventually broke off contact with the Confederates at Spotsylvania, sending a segment of his army east with the hope that Lee would chase after it. Spotsylvania, like the Wilderness, had been a tactical draw that Grant - even at the cost of 18,000 killed, wounded, and captured - turned into a strategic victory by refusing to retreat. Lee’s losses probably numbered more than 12,000 as he tried and failed to blunt Grant’s advance. Grant continued to maneuver south, however, and next confronted Lee May 27–28 along the banks of the North Anna River.

[Ennath]

May 9, 1972
LodAirport Rescue

On May 8, 1972, four terrorists - Ahmed Awad, Abed al-Aziz Atrash, Theresa Khalsa and Rima Tannous - belonging to the Palestinian Black September Organization under the direction of Ali Hassan Salameh, boarded Sabena flight 571 in Vienna with 90 other passengers and a small crew. Approximately 20 minutes after takeoff, the terrorists, armed with 2 handguns, 2 hand grenades and 2 belts of explosives, attempted to rush the cockpit in order to take control of the plane. The British pilot Reginald Levy, later hailed as a hero for his actions during the sequence of events that followed, attempted to calm the passengers, telling them “as you can see, we have friends aboard” and talking about various unrelated topics to keep their focus off the hijackers.

Shortly after the terrorists took control of the plane, demanding that Captain Levy maintain course and land at Lod Airport outside Tel Aviv, Levy was able to send a secret distress signal to Israel which were received by Security Minister Moshe Dayan. Immediately, Dayan began negotiations with the terrorists while simultaneously beginning to plan a cover rescue operation, code-named Operation Isotope. Meanwhile, the hijackers separated the Jewish hostages from the others and sent them to the back of the aircraft.

When the plane had landed, the hijackers demanded the release of 315 convicted Palestinian terrorists imprisoned in Israel, and threatened to blow up the airplane and kill everyone on board. At the hijackers request, teams from the International Red Cross were used to ferry messages between the plane and Dayan.

Meanwhile, Israeli agents used the cover of darkness to creep under the plane in order to deflate the tires and disconnect hydraulic equipment, thus preventing the terrorists from taking off again. It was at this point, when the terrorists finally realized they could not take off, that Captain Levy says he began talking with them about “everything under the sun, from navigation to sex” in order to calm them down and not make any rash decisions. Captain Levy was later sent off the plane to show the Israelis a sample of the terrorists’ explosives to convince them of the real and imminent threat. According to Israeli security officials, Levy also described the hijackers appearances, their positions in the plane, and that there were no seats blocking the emergency exits.

On May 9, Dayan set the rescue operation in motion. While Dayan showed the hijackers a group of bogus Palestinian prisoners boarding another plane which was supposedly fueled and ready to leave for Cairo, he also promised to send a group of technicians to their plane in order to fix the problems which would then allow them to take off again.

Around 4:00 that afternoon, a team of 16 Sayeret Matkal commandos, led by future Prime Minister Ehud Barak (and including future Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu), dressed in white worker overalls disguised as the promised technicians, approached the plane. The soldiers were split into 5 teams, which burst into the plane through 5 openings - the main door, the rear door, the emergency door and the two wings of the plane - shooting and killing the 2 male hijackers and capturing the 2 female Three passengers were wounded in the exchange of fire, one of whom, 22-year-old Miriam Anderson, later died of her injuries. Netanyahu was also wounded during the rescue when another commando, Marko Ashkenazi, accidentally discharged his gun as he used it to hit Theresa Halsa. The bullet passed through her and penetrated Netanyahu’s bicep.

The two surviving female terrorists were subsequently convicted in Israeli court and sentenced to life imprisonment but were released later in a prisoner exchange deal following the 1982 Lebanon War. Captain Levy was welcomed as a hero in Israel, where Prime Minister Golda Meir held a dinner in honor of the successful operation and honored Levy and his wife, who unbeknownst to the hijackers, was aboard the same flight. Levy retired from his piloting job with Sabena in 1982 and on August 4, 2010, he passed away at the age of 88. The hijacking actually took place on his 50th birthday.

[Ennath]

May 10, 1940
Battle for The Hague

On the morning of May 10, 1940, the Germans opened their offensive in the West. Part of the invasion of the Netherlands was the largest airborne operation attempted up to this time. Surrounded by fighters and fighter-bombers, a large number of Ju 52 transports, with heavy fighter escort, carried the 5000 men of German 22nd Airborne Division, under Hans Graf von Sponeck. The audacious objective of this unprecedented operation was to seize the Dutch government and Royal family.

The Germans planned to surprise the Dutch and so catch them off guard, flying out over the North Sea, in order to lull the Dutch into thinking that England was their target. They would then turn south and attack the airfields at Ypenburg, Ockenburg and Valkenburg to weaken potential Dutch defenses before taking The Hague. It was expected that the queen and the commander in chief of the Dutch forces, Henri Winkelman, might agree at this point to surrender. However, if the Dutch did not surrender, the Germans planned to cut off all roads leading to The Hague in order to quell any subsequent Dutch counterattack.

Attacks on Dutch airfields began at 0415 and despite the alarm that had gone out around 0300 (when the German airfleet had crossed the border) many Dutch fighters and bombers were damaged or destroyed on the ground. At the same time the Luftwaffe bombed and strafed The Hague airfields (Ypenburg, Valkenburg, and Ockenburg).

Several waves of paratroopers were dropped at 0430 in the fields surrounding Ypenburg airfield. Despite fierce resistance by a machine gun company that had unexpectedly arrived overnight, the German paratroopers managed to reach and seize the control tower and adjacent buildings and raised a German flag. On this signal the remaining Ju 52’s came in to land but they were in for a nasty surprise. The grass surface of the recently completed airfield still wasn’t completely drained. The first few Ju 52’s got stuck in the mud and crashed, some of them with fatalities, completely blocking the field.

The same happened at Valkenburg. The Valkenburg airfield was only partially constructed. As with Ypenburg, the Germans troops bombed the airfield prior to dropping paratroopers, causing heavy casualties among the defenders. Though the subsequent waves of paratroops also sustained heavy losses, the defenders were unable to prevent the Germans taking the field. However, as the airfield remained under construction, the Germans could not fly their transport aircraft from it and further transports were unable to land. Many landed on the nearby beaches and were destroyed by Dutch planes and fire from a Dutch destroyer. Following several ground skirmishes, the German troops occupied the village of Valkenburg as well as some of the bridges and buildings at Katwijk, along the Old Rhine river.

At around the same time, German paratroopers were dropped at the airstrip in Ockenburg. The defenders of Ockenburg were unable to prevent the Germans taking the airfield, but they were able to delay them long enough to ensure that the Dutch infantry arrived to prevent the paratroopers from advancing into the Hague. As the Germans were using the Ockenburg airfield to strengthen their numbers, the Dutch bombed it to prevent the landing strip being used further.

The Dutch counterattack began several hours later and started from Ypenburg. Though outnumbered and relying on ammunition that they had captured from the Germans, the Dutch Grenadier Guards fought their way into position to bombard the airfield with hurriedly brought up artillery, causing heavy damage. The Germans were forced to evacuate the airfield’s burning buildings, losing the strong defensive position. The Dutch were able to advance into the airfield, and in the skirmishes that followed, many of the Germans were forced to surrender.

Four Dutch Fokker T.Vs bombed the Ockenburg airfield, destroying idle Ju-52s. The Dutch troops followed up by storming the airfield. The Germans were forced into retreat, though some withdrew to the woods near the field and successfully held out. The Dutch forces were later ordered to disengage and turn instead to Loosduinen, and so the Germans were able to head towards Rotterdam.

Having sealed off Leiden and the village of Wassenaar, the Dutch retook an important bridge near Valkenburg. When reinforcements arrived, they began attacking on the ground at the same time as Dutch bombers destroyed the grounded transport planes. While the Germans put up a defense at the outskirts of the airfield, they were forced to evacuate under heavy fire. Several skirmishes to liberate occupied positions in the village of Valkenburg nearby were fought between small groups of men on both sides, the Dutch with artillery support from nearby Oegstgeest, the village being heavily damaged in the process. By day’s end, all 3 airfields were back in Dutch hands. Besieged by advancing Dutch troops, Von Sponeck and 1100 surviving soldiers were forced to retreat into the dunes north of The Hague. Only the Dutch armistice on May 14 saved him and his men from an ignoble surrender. The first major airborne assault had been an abject failure.

The Dutch lost 515 killed. One bomber was shot down following a raid on Ockenburg. The German casualty numbers are given as 134 killed by German sources, while Dutch sources estimate 400 Germans were killed. Numbers of wounded, missing and captured are not known with certainty, but Dutch sources estimate that 700 Germans were wounded. 1745 were captured according to Dutch sources (German sources do not confirm this, but it might be simply incomplete, as about  1⁄2 of the POWs were recaptured by German forces soon after the Dutch surrender (the rest had been shipped to Britain). They also lost 182 transport aircraft.

The main effect of the battle was unforeseen: the large loss of German transport aircraft. This had a direct effect on the planning for the proposed German invasion of Britain. Another important effect was that the Dutch queen and her government were able to flee to Britain and constitute a government-in-exile.

[Ennath]

853 BC
Battle of Qarqar

King Shalmaneser III of Assyria (r. 858-824 BC), soon after coming to the throne, began a great campaign to subdue the lands west of the Euphrates, after those east of the river had been subjugated. The immediate targets were the Aramaean and Neo-Hittite city-states of Syria. In 857, he reached the Amanus Mountains and the Mediterranean shores, and in the next year, he settled Assyrians in this land.

Far from stabilizing the region, it led to an escalation. The remaining city states and kingdoms in the west united in a defensive alliance, and seem to have tried to create dissension within the Assyrian realms. At the core of this coalition were Ben-Hadad II of Damascus and Ahab of Israel, who had been at loggerheads with each other for years, but put their disputes aside for the moment to face the greater threat. Shalmaneser sought a decisive battle to show who was the boss.

He departed from Nineveh after the full moon of the month Ajaru had been observed, as was customary, in the year in which Dayan-Ashur was limmu (a yearly royal official responsible for the New Year festivities); comparison to the Assyrian Eponym List helps to establish that this was the spring of 853 BC. The army marched west and encountered the first resistance in the valley of the river Balik, where a chief named Giammu had seized power. At Carchemish, the Assyrian army crossed the Euphrates. At Pitru, the king received envoys from Melidu (Melitene), Gurgum, Kummuhi (Commagene), Carchemish, and Arpad, who stressed their loyalty. More importantly, there were also representatives of the recently conquered territories in the west, Sam'al and Pattina.

Proceeding to the west, the Assyrian army reached Halman (Aleppo). The town belonged to Sam'al, which had already surrendered, but Shalmaneser presents its surrender as something special. He climbed to the citadel, sacrificed to Hadad, and proceeded to the southwest, where he invaded Hamath: the first kingdom of the anti-Assyrian coalition. Pillaging the land, the Assyrians tried to force their enemies to battle. “I approached the cities of [king] Irhuleni, the Hamathite. I captured Adennu, Parga, and Argana, his royal cities. I carried off captives, his valuables, and his palace possessions. I set fire to his palaces.” The army continued to the Qarqar, a town on the plain of the Orontes. The allied army was waiting for him.

Shalmaneser’s annals have preserved the order of battle of the allies: :Hadadezer (Ben-Hadad) of Damascus - 1200 chariots, 1200 cavalrymen, 10,000 foot soldiers; Irhuleni of Hamath - 700 chariots, 700 cavalrymen, 10,000 foot soldiers; Ahab the Israelite - 2000 chariots, 10,000 foot soldiers; Que - 500 foot soldiers; 1000 soldiers from Musri (either a Syrian state or Egypt); Arqad - 10 chariots, 10,000 soldiers; Arvad - 200 soldiers; Usanata - 200 soldiers; Shian - 50 chariots, 10,000 foot soldiers; 1000 soldiers from Ammon; Gindibu the Arab - 1000 camel riders. Even allowing for the exaggeration common in ancient sources, the army was clearly a sizeable one.

Shalmaneser describes the fight in stereotypical phrases: “With the supreme forces which Ashur, my lord, had given me and with the mighty weapons which the divine standard, which goes before me, had granted me, I fought with them. I decisively defeated them from the city of Qarqar to the city of Gilzau. I felled with the sword 14,000 troops, their fighting men. Like Adad, I rained down upon them a devastating flood. I spread out their corpses and I filled the plain. I felled with the sword their extensive troops. I made their blood flow in the wadis. The field was too small for laying flat their bodies; the broad countryside had been consumed in burying them. I blocked the Orontes river with their corpses as with a causeway. In the midst of the battle I took away from them chariots, cavalry, and teams of horses.” At this point, the account on the Kurkh Stela breaks off. This, and the great number of spelling errors, suggest that the stela had to be erected quickly. It had to be made clear to anyone who might have thought otherwise, that the king had achieved a splendid victory.

Reality may have been different. It seems that the battle of Qarqar had not been decisive, because we read about continuous warfare. Indeed, it may have been a clear defeat. Ten years later, Shalmaneser for the third time ordered the composition of his Annals ("Recension C"). The story of the campaign of 853 is summarized - the number of killed enemies is now 25,000 - and we learn that the king boarded ships and went out upon the sea. But we also read that in 849, he had to fight against Carchemish and Arpad, which had been loyal in 853, and against the coalition. Next year, the Assyrians again had to fight against Carchemish, Arpad, and Hamath; a third battle against the coalition forces ended in the inevitable Assyrian victory. Whatever the nature of Assyria’s “victories”, the fact that he king needed to return proves that Qarqar, whoever may have been the tactical victor, had been a strategic victory for the coalition.

No mention is made of the Qarqar campaign in the Bible. This is probably due to the fact that the authors, from the southern kingdom of Judah, were reluctant to credit Ahab, who was married to the detested Jezebel, with anything.

Recension C ends with another battle, in 845. This time, the coalition received no support from Arpad and Carchemish, and it seems that this time, victory was decisive: the two states never returned to the coalition. Recension D, inscribed on 2 monumental bulls found in Nimrud, refers to another campaign, in 841. This time, the Assyrians seem to have met an isolated king Hazael of Damascus, because the coalition is not mentioned. They defeated him in battle, marched to Damascus, pillaged the land, and received tribute from Sidon, Tyre, and Israel. This was repeated 3 years later, although this time, the tribute bearers were Sidon, Tyre, and Byblos. The coalition had been broken, and Assyrian power in Syria was to last for two centuries.