The Military History Thread

[Ennath]

July 6, 1777
Fall of Ticonderoga

In the spring of 1777, Maj. Gen. John Burgoyne devised a plan for achieving victory over the Americans. Concluding that New England was the seat of the rebellion, he suggested separating the region from the other colonies by advancing down the Hudson River corridor while a second column, led by Col. Barry St. Leger, moved east from Lake Ontario. Rendezvousing at Albany, the combined force would drive down the Hudson, while Gen. William Howe's army marched north from New York. Though the plan was approved by London, Howe's role was never clearly defined and his seniority prevented Burgoyne from issuing him orders.

Prior to this, British forces under Sir Guy Carleton had attempted to capture Fort Ticonderoga. Sailing south on Lake Champlain in the fall of 1776, Carleton's fleet was delayed by an American squadron led by Brig. Gen. Benedict Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Island (see posting). Though Arnold was defeated, the lateness of the season prevented the British from exploiting their victory.

Arriving in Quebec the following spring, Burgoyne began assembling his army and making preparations for moving south. Building a force of around 7000 regulars and 800 Indians, he gave command of his advance force to Brig. Gen. Simon Fraser while leadership of the right and left wings of the army went to William Phillips and Baron Riedesel. After reviewing his command at Ft. Saint-Jean in mid-June, Burgoyne took to the lake to begin his campaign. Occupying Crown Point on June 30, his army was effectively screened by Fraser's men and the Indians.

Following their capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775, American forces had spent 2 years improving its defenses. These included extensive earthworks across the lake on the Mt. Independence peninsula as well as redoubts and forts on the site of the old French defenses to the west. Additionally, American forces built a fort atop nearby Mt. Hope. To the southwest, the height of Sugar Loaf (Mount Defiance), which dominated both Ft. Ticonderoga and Mt. Independence, was left undefended as it was not believed that artillery could be pulled to the summit. This point had been challenged by Arnold and Anthony Wayne during earlier stints in the area, but no action was taken.

Through the early part of 1777, American leadership in the region had been in flux as Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates lobbied for command of the Northern Department. As this debate continued, oversight at Fort Ticonderoga fell to Maj. Gen. Arthur St. Clair, who commanded around 2500-3000 men. Meeting with Schuyler on June 20, the 2 men concluded that this force was not sufficient to hold the Ticonderoga defenses against a determined British attack. As such, they devised 2 lines of retreat with one passing south through Skenesboro and the other heading east toward Hubbardton. Departing, Schuyler told his subordinate to defend the post for as long as possible before retreating.

Moving south on July 2, Burgoyne advanced Fraser and Phillips down the west shore of the lake while Riedesel's Germans pressed along the east bank with the goal of attacking Mt. Independence and cutting the road to Hubbardton. Sensing danger, St. Clair withdrew the garrison from Mt. Hope later that morning due to concerns that it would be isolated and overwhelmed. Later in the day, British and Indian forces began skirmishing with the Americans in the old French lines. In the course of the fighting, a British soldier was captured and St. Clair was able to learn more about the size of Burgoyne's army.

Recognizing the importance of Sugar Loaf, British engineers ascended the heights and covertly began clearing space for an artillery emplacement. The next morning, Fraser's men occupied Mt. Hope while other British forces began dragging guns up Sugar Loaf. Continuing to work in secret, Burgoyne hoped to have Riedesel in place on the Hubbardton Road before the Americans discovered the guns on the heights. On the evening of July 4, Native American campfires on Sugar Loaf alerted St. Clair to the impending danger. With the American defenses exposed to the British guns, he called a council of war early on July 5. Meeting with his commanders, St. Clair made the decision to abandon the fort and retreat after dark. As Fort Ticonderoga was a politically important post, he recognized that the withdrawal would badly damage his reputation but he felt that saving his army took precedence.

Gathering a fleet of over 200 boats, St. Clair directed that as many supplies as possible be embarked and sent south to Skenesboro. While the boats were escorted south by Col. Pierse Long's New Hampshire Regiment, St. Clair and the remaining men crossed to Mt. Independence before marching down the Hubbardton Road. Probing the American lines the next morning, Burgoyne's troops found them deserted. Pushing forward, they occupied Fort Ticonderoga and the surrounding works without firing a shot. Shortly thereafter, Fraser received permission to mount a pursuit of the retreating Americans with Riedesel in support.

St. Clair suffered 7 killed and 11 wounded while Burgoyne incurred 5 killed. Fraser's pursuit resulted in the Battle of Hubbardton on July 7 (see posting). Though a British victory, it saw the American rearguard inflict higher casualties as well as accomplish their mission of covering St. Clair's retreat. Turning west, St. Clair's men later rendezvoused with Schuyler at Fort Edward. As he predicted, St. Clair's abandonment of Ticonderoga led to his removal from command and contributed to Schuyler being replaced by Gates. Firmly arguing that his actions had been honorable and were justified, he demanded a court of inquiry which was held in September 1778. Though exonerated, St. Clair did not receive another field command during the war.

Advancing south after his success at Fort Ticonderoga, Burgoyne was hampered by difficult terrain and American efforts to slow his march. As the campaign season wore on, his plans began to unravel following a defeat at Bennington (see posting) and St. Leger's failure at the Siege of Fort Stanwix. The campaign would climax that fall at Saratoga.

[Ennath]

July 7, 1742
Battle of Bloody Marsh

James Oglethorpe led the colonization of Georgia, and had chosen Savannah as the principal port for the new colony. In the 1730s, Spain and Great Britain were disputing control of the border between Georgia and La Florida, where the Spanish had several settlements and forts. Given a heightened threat of Spanish invasion, Oglethorpe sought to increase his southern defenses. Accompanied by rangers and 2 Indian guides, Oglethorpe picked St. Simons Island as the site for a new town and fort. In 1734, Oglethorpe convinced the Parliament and the colonial trustees to pay for a military garrison. The trustees also recruited a large group of colonists to settle St. Simons Island. The ships bearing the settlers and supplies arrived at Tybee Island early in 1736. From there, some went to the mainland while others traveled via pirogues to St. Simons Island to found Frederica. The town and its fort were built on the elbow of the Frederica River to control approaches from both directions.

In 1737, Oglethorpe returned to England to acquire more funding and permission to raise a regiment of soldiers; he gained Parliamentary approval for both. He was appointed commander-in-chief of all British forces (limited as they were) in the colonies of South Carolina and Georgia. Oglethorpe subsequently recruited a company of Scots from Inverness, to migrate with their families to settle at Darien (briefly named "New Inverness") on the mainland, at the mouth of the Altamaha River. The men formed a military unit known locally as the Highland Independent Company. Official British records list it as Oglethorpe's Regiment of Foot. It was ranked as 42nd Regiment of Foot (old) in 1747, and disbanded in May 1749 in Georgia.

2 forts had been constructed about 5 miles apart on St. Simons Island. Between them ran a road the width of one wagon, named Military Road. This served to supply the garrison at Ft. Frederica and settlers in the nearby village from Ft. St. Simons.

On October 30, 1739, Great Britain declared war on Spain, beginning the War of Jenkins’ Ear. In 1742, Spanish governor Don Manuel de Montiano led an invasion of Georgia, at the head of roughly 1900-2000 troops. Oglethorpe's forces, consisting of regulars, militia, and native Indians, numbered fewer than 1000.

On July 5, Montiano landed from 36 ships near Gascoigne Bluff, close to the Frederica River. The garrison at Ft. St. Simons opened fire, but could not prevent the landing. Faced with superior force, Oglethorpe decided to abandon the fort before the Spanish could mount an assault. He ordered the small garrison to spike the guns and slight the fort (doing what damage they could). The Spanish took over the remains the following day, establishing it as their base on the island.

After landing troops and supplies, and consolidating their position, the Spanish began to reconnoiter beyond their perimeter. They found the road to Ft. Frederica, but assumed the narrow track was just a farm road. On July 18, the Spanish undertook a reconnaissance in force along the road with approximately 115 men under the command of Captain Sebastian Sanchez. A mile and a half from Ft. Frederica, Sanchez' column made contact with the British, under Noble Jones. The ensuing skirmish became known as the Battle of Gully Hole Creek. The British routed the Spanish, killing or capturing nearly a third of their soldiers. Oglethorpe's forces advanced along Military Road toward Ft. St. Simons in pursuit. When Spanish prisoners revealed that a larger force was advancing toward Frederica, Oglethorpe left to gather reinforcements.

The British advance party, in pursuit of the defeated Spanish, engaged in a skirmish, then fell back in face of Spanish reinforcements. When the British reached a bend in the road, Lts. Southerland and Macoy ordered the column to halt. They took cover in a semi-circle shaped area around a clearing behind trees and palmettos, waiting for the Spanish. They watched as the Spanish broke ranks, stacked arms and, taking out their kettles, prepared to cook dinner. The Spanish thought they were protected because they had the marsh on one side of them and the forest on the other. The British opened fire from behind the cover of trees and bushes, catching the Spanish off-guard. The attack killed roughly 200 Spaniards and the battle took its name from the tradition that the marsh ran red with the blood of dead Spanish soldiers. The floor of the forest was strewn with the bodies of the dead and dying. A few Spanish officers attempted in vain to reform their ranks, but the Spanish soldiers and their allies fled in multiple directions as they were hit with volley after volley from behind the foliage. Oglethorpe was credited with the victory, though he arrived at the scene after the fighting had ceased.

Oglethorpe continued to press the Spanish, trying to dislodge them from the island. A few days later, approaching a Spanish settlement on the south side, he learned of a Frenchman who had deserted the British and gone to the Spanish. Worried that the deserter might report how small his force was, Oglethorpe spread out his drummers, to make them sound as if they were accompanying a larger force. He wrote to the deserter, addressing him as if he were a spy for the British, saying that the man just needed to continue his stories until Britain could send more men. The prisoner who was carrying the letter took it to the Spanish officers, as Oglethorpe had hoped and the Spanish promptly executed the Frenchman. The timely arrival of British ships reinforced the misconception among the Spanish that British reinforcements were arriving. The Spanish left St. Simons on July 25, ending their last invasion of colonial Georgia.

In the ensuing months, Oglethorpe considered counterattacks against Florida, but circumstances were not favorable. The focus of the war had shifted from the Americas to Europe; arms, supplies and troops were not readily available. The region settled into an uneasy peace, occasionally punctuated by minor skirmishes. Oglethorpe was appointed brigadier general. About 1744 he left Georgia for Britain, where he married an heiress; he lived in Britain the rest of his life. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war in 1748 and recognized the status of Georgia as a British colony, formally ratified by Spain in the subsequent Treaty of Madrid.

[Ennath]

432 BC
Siege of Potidaia

Potidaia was located on the Chalcidice peninsula, near Macedonia. It was at the mainland end of the Pallene isthmus (the western-most of the three narrow peninsulas that jut south from Chalcidice, and was an example of a city with a foot in both camps. The city was a colony of Corinth (part of the Peloponnesian League), and had maintained friendly relations with the mother city. Potidaia's annual magistrates were still provided by Corinth. At the same time Potidaia was a member of the Delian League, which made it part of the Athenian empire. This would have been an awkward relationship at the best of times, but after the outbreak of near-open hostility between Corinth and Athens during the Corinth-Corcyra War of 435-431 BC (see posting, Battle of Sybota), the Athenians decided that Corinthian influence would have to end. There was also a fear that a rebellious Potidaia could trigger a wider rebellion in Thrace, and threaten a key part of the Athenian grain supply.

The Athenians made 3 demands - first that Potidaia send back her Corinthian magistrates and refuse to accept any more, second that she send hostages to Athens and third that the city walls facing south towards the Pallene isthmus be dismantled. The Potidaians responded by sending ambassadors to Athens to argue against these demands, and to Sparta to seek allies. They were also aware that King Perdiccas of Macedon would support them if they revolted against Athens. Perdiccas was already involved in efforts to convince the Chalcidians to revolt, and in response the Athenians were on the verge of dispatching a force of 1000 hoplites against him. The Potidaian ambassadors to Athens failed to win any concessions, but the ambassadors to Sparta received a promise that if Athens attacked then Sparta would invade Attica. When this news reached Potidaia the citizens decided to join with the Chalcidians, and the revolt began.

Soon after this the first Athenian expedition arrived in the area, but its commanders soon realized that they didn’t have enough men to deal with all of their enemies; they decided to focus on Perdiccas first. This gave the Corinthians time to send 1600 hoplites and 400 light troops to Potidaia. The Athenians responded with fresh troops, sending 2000 more hoplites under Callias, son of Calliades. They arrived to find the first army besieging Pydna, and after a time consuming siege were able to come to terms with Perdiccas.

The Athenian army, now reinforced by 600 Macedonian cavalry, marched east along the coast towards Potidaia. By the time they arrived the Macedonians had changed sides once again, and had troops with the Potidaians, Corinthians and Chalcidians (although the original 600 cavalry may have stayed with the Athenians). The allies split their army in 2. The Corinthians and Potidaians took up a position on the isthmus just north of their city, while the Chalcidians, Macedonians and other allies took up a position at Olynthus, 7 miles to the northeast. Their plan was to wait for the Athenians to attack the troops outside Potidaia and then attack them in the rear using the forces at Olynthus. This plan was disrupted by the Athenians, who sent their Macedonian cavalry and some other allies towards Olynthus, preventing the reinforcements from moving. The Athenians then attacked the main allied army. The Corinthian wing of the allied army, under Aristeus, was victorious, but the Athenians won everywhere else along the line. Aristeus was only just able to fight his way back to safety inside Potidaia by advancing in a narrow column along the waterfront. The allies had lost 300 men, the Athenians only 150 (although Callias was amongst them).

The Athenians erected a trophy to commemorate the victory, and then began to prepare for a regular siege of Potidaia. At first they only built a wall across the head of the isthmus north of the city, in the belief that they didn’t have enough men to risk splitting their forces by building another wall to the south. When this news reached Athens a 3rd army was dispatched, 1600 hoplites under the command of Phormio, son of Asopius. This army landed at Pallene, south of Potidaia, and advanced along the isthmus. When he reached the city Phormio built a line of siege fortifications to the south, and the city was completely cut off.

Aristeus, the Corinthian commander, believed that the besieged city could no longer hold out. He advised the citizens to evacuate by sea at the first possible opportunity, leaving a garrison of 500 men to defend the city. After this advice was ignored, Aristeus escaped and attempted to help the defenders from outside, partly by working with the Chalcidians and partly by calling for help from the Peloponnese. This led the siege to mushroom into full-scale war between Athens and Sparta.

After this dramatic start the siege dragged on. Thucydides doesn't record any significant events at Potidaia in 431 BC. In the summer of 430 BC the largest Athenian army yet was sent against Potidaia. This force of 4000 hoplites, 300 cavalry, 100 triremes and 50 ships from Lesbos and Chios was commanded by Hagnon, son of Nicias and Cleopompus, son of Clinias, Pericles' fellow generals. By 430 BC plague had broken out in Athens, and Hagnon's army took it to Potidaia, where it spread to the troops already engaged; the plague killed 1050 of his 4000 men. After spending at least a month outside Potidaia Hagnon gave up and took his army back to Athens.

Eventually the siege was ended by starvation. By the winter of 430-429 BC the situation was so bad that some cases of cannibalism were recorded inside the city. The Athenians were clearly also becoming tired with the siege, which had cost them 2000 talents and forced them to keep a large army in the northern Aegean. This is reflected in the lenient surrender terms that were agreed. The Potidaians, their wives and children and auxiliary troops were allowed to leave the city in freedom and go anywhere they wished. Each woman was allowed to take 2 garments with them, each man a single garment, as well as a fixed sum of money for the journey. These lenient terms caused some complaints at Athens, but they did mean that the siege finally came to an end. The Athenians kept possession of Potidaea, eventually resettling the city with their own colonists.

[Ennath]

July 8, 1592
Battle of Hansando

With Japan’s invasion of Korea on April 13, 1592, Adm. Yi Sun Sin had sent out his fleet on a naval exercise. Upon hearing that Pusan had been captured, Yi immediately set out to block Japanese naval operations along the coast. The potent centerpiece of his fleet was the “turtle ships”, well-armed with cannon and protected by thick planking. The bow contained a sulfur smoke discharger. (There have been claims that the vessels were ironclads, but this has never been proven.)

His first encounter at Okpo (May 1) was a decisive victory, destroying almost half of ships of the docking Japanese fleet. Prior to the Okpo Campaign, Yi mainly patrolled the seas near his Jeolla Province, to fortify is position before he began moving westward, due to the call for help from Adm. Won Gyun. A number of battles were fought around the area, mainly minor skirmishes. Around the end of May, Yi set out again eastward and encountered another force around the Sacheon-Dangpo area, where he met his first significant force of Japanese and forced the Japanese to withdraw, with heavy casualties. After securing this area, he decided to press his advantage and moved to the Noryang-Hansando area.

Given the importance of the Japanese fleet in supplying the army as it advanced along the Korean peninsula and prepared to invade China, Toyotomi Hideyoshi made it absolutely clear to his commanders that the naval situation must be brought under control, the Korean fleets destroyed and the supply route through the Yellow Sea secured. The Japanese commander, Wakizaka Yasuharu, was ordered to wait and combine his fleet with the forces of Kat Yoshiaki and Kuki Yoshitaka to seek out and destroy the Korean fleet. However, it would have taken some time for them to assemble their ships, so Wakizaka went out alone with 73 ships. Out of these, 36 were the large multi-decked atakebune.

Adm. Yi received intelligence from a local farmer that a large Japanese fleet (Wakizaka's ships) was making its way west towards him and was anchored north of the Gyeonnaeryang Strait, a narrow channel between Geoje Island and the mainland. His fleet had a total of 54 panokseons (galleys) and 2-3 turtle ships. He was aided in command by Won and Yi Eok Ki.

On July 8, the next morning, Yi sent out 6 panokseons through the channel to lure out Wakizaka's fleet. Wakizaka took the bait and chased the panokseons through the channel and into the broad open sea in front of Hansan Island. Wakizaka saw Yi's fleet before him and pressed to engage.

Yi began to arrange the fleet in the crane wing formation. This was normally a land tactic, seldom used at sea. In the 2 previous campaigns, the Koreans had either met the Japanese ships in a straight battle line or, if space was limited, with a circular or rolling method of attack, where their ships attacked in relays to sustain a continuous bombardment. Although these tactics were effective, considerable numbers of Japanese escaped and swam ashore. The crane wing formation was designed to not just sink ships, but to annihilate the enemy without losing a lot of men. The formation itself resembled a U shape, with the heaviest ships in the center and lighter ships on the wings. There was a turtle ship at the end of each side, anchoring the flanks. Reserves were placed behind the center and would plug gaps as the formation expanded. Ships at the front would face broadside to maximize the number of cannons that would be aimed at the enemy. Furthermore, the U shape itself would allow for interlocking fields of fire so that many Japanese ships would be enfiladed and hit from several angles.

The Japanese tactic was to put their fastest ships in the vanguard to keep the Korean ships occupied, then move their larger ships rapidly to close in, grapple, and board. However, this tactic played right into Yi's plan, as the Japanese rowed deeper into the trap. The volume and range of Korean cannon fire prevented the Japanese from employing their favorite tactic and the two wings of the crane formation would envelop, surround and finally have the effect of crowding in the Japanese ships, making it difficult to maneuver or retreat and presenting an easier target for Korean cannons.

Wakizaka Yasuharu was a highly aggressive commander, having gained fame in the battle that solidified Hideyoshi's claim to be Oda Nobunaga's successor. He not only followed the Korean decoy ships with his entire fleet of 73 ships into the ambush, but pressed as quickly as possible into the center of the crane wing formation, oblivious to the fact that he was exposing his ships and his flanks to the Korean fleet's concentrated and longer-range firepower.

The battle continued from the mid-morning to late afternoon. Korean sailors boarded some of the Japanese ships, but Yi only allowed it if the ship was already crippled. Wakisaka's commanders, Wakizaka Sabei and Watanabe Shichiemon, were killed. Manabe Samanosuke committed seppuku aboard his burning, sinking ship. Wakizaka Yasuharu himself was hit by several arrows, but none penetrated his armor. After losing 59 ships, Wakizaka abandoned his flagship and boarded a faster, lighter ship. In total, 14 Japanese ships were able to escape; however, many of these were damaged so badly that they had to be abandoned in some of the surrounding islands. Only a few ships ever made it back to the Japanese base at Pusan. Several thousand Japanese crewmen were killed. The Korean fleet lost 19 dead and 400 wounded.

It is clear that Toyotomi Hideyoshi regarded these losses as unacceptable. It is also clear that he now doubted the ability of his navy to overcome Korean resistance in southern waters and secure the vital supply route around the southwestern tip of the peninsular and north through the Yellow Sea. On August 23 he ordered naval commander Todo Takatora forward from Iki Island to reinforce his colleagues in Korea, and dispatched orders to Pusan halting naval operations along the southern coast.

The rout at sea was the first serious setback in Japan’s planned invasion of the mainland, and as such possibly the most important one, for in blocking the flow of reinforcements, it significantly weakened the Japanese land forces and in turn rendered them that much more vulnerable in the land battles to come.

[Ennath]

July 9, 1909
1st Rif War

In 1901, An Arab ex-court scribe, Jilali ben Dris, revolted against the Sultan of Morocco. Jilali was popularly known as El Rogui (“the Pretender”) or Bu Hamara (literally “the man who rides on a female donkey”, referring to a Djinn trickster in local myth). El Rogui’s movement lasted from late 1901 until Sep 1908. The rebellion started in the Taza region to the south of the Rif, but spread to cover the area from the Algerian border to Fez. In 1907 El Rogui invaded the Rif Mountains and promptly sold mining concessions to European companies. This action offended the Beni Urriaguel and other central Rif tribes. The Elder Adb-el-Krim raised a Rif army, crushed the interlopers in battle, and drove them back south to Taza (1908).

In 1904 the French and British agreed to let the French take control of Morocco as long as the coast facing Gibraltar was in weaker Spanish hands. The Spanish portion was 50% smaller than the French had offered in 1902. In practice this made little difference as the Spanish remained in their fortified towns of Larache, Ceuta, and Melilla.

On February 14, 1908, a gunboat and a mailship set sail from Melilla. They carried 2 companies of soldiers on disciplinary charges. The ships traveled through rough sea, heavy rain, and cold winds to a port 12 miles south of Melilla. 4 landing boats put the Spanish soldiers ashore. El Rogui’s men put up a token resistance in what was essentially a charade to convince other Muslims that he had opposed the Spanish. There were no losses on either side. The invaders hoisted the Spanish flag over the small warehouse. Aside from giving them an additional foothold on Moroccan soil it also interrupted a French-Belgian operation to smuggle arms to El Rogui. The Spanish government presented the action to the world as a temporary step - it wasn’t.

The Spanish commander in Morocco at the time was Gen. José Marina, described as an “enlightened Spanish military Arabist”. Marina dealt with both El Rogui and the pro-sultan tribes around Melilla. He secured more territory at the Cabo de Agua near Melilla, so as to make the life of the Spanish garrison on the nearby Chafarinas Islands easier; they had to cross the to mainland to buy provisions from the Quebdanis.

In late 1908, El Rogui, on the verge of defeat, fled to the French sphere of influence with a few followers. He correctly predicted that his departure would “cost the Spanish many thousands of millions of pesetas and streams of blood and tears”. The Sultan captured El Rogui in 1909, paraded him through Fez in a cage and then had him shot. A chieftain called El Sharif Mohammad Amzian emerged from the vacuum left by El Rogui and called for a jihad against the Spanish.

Now without support in hostile territory, Gen. Marina asked Madrid for reinforcements to protect the mines, but none were sent. The Spanish government give him permission to use limited force to protect the mines. Marina had 5700 troops. He deployed a detachment to protect the works on the railway between Melilla and the mines. The garrison was also in training for active operations.

On July 9, 1909, an attack by Rif tribesmen killed 6 Spanish railway workers. The other workers escaped on the train that had brought them to the site. The Spanish army detachment on the railway line quickly moved to the site while Marina mobilized the garrison. Most marched out to confront the tribesmen. The tribesmen were driven off with few losses to either side. They did, however, come under harassment from native guerillas. The Spanish navy also began to bombard the coastal villages although concern about international opinion moved the government to put a stop to the shelling.

On the night of July 26-27, Rifs ripped up a stretch of railway leading to the mines. Marina sent out a column to protect the repair crew and a 2nd column under Gen. Pintos to pin the Rifs gathering in nearby valleys. Pintos and one of his brigades had arrived only 2 days earlier. The advance was preceded by a bombardment from Melilla. In the mid-day light the terrain ahead of Pintos appeared to be one large sloping plain. To their cost the Spanish found it to be cut by deep gullies and ravines. Rif rifle fire took its toll as the Spanish advanced. Their losses increased when the soldiers began to clump into a dense formation to navigate the rough terrain. Pintos divided his men into 2 columns as they approached the Barranco del Lobo (Wolf Ravine). The right-hand column reached a hill to the right of the ravine. Ignoring his orders Pintos led the left-hand column into the ravine. Rif fire cut into them from above, in front and both sides. Pintos and most of the officers were killed. The leaderless men retreated in disorder, abandoning their dead, wounded and ammunition mules. The Spanish lost about 180 killed and over 1000 casualties in total. An annoyed Marina declined to attend Pintos’ funeral. Despite the losses this disaster alone gave rise to 61 promotions; not surprisingly some officers resented the apparent award of promotions for losses rather than successful actions.

The defeats in Morocco convinced the Spanish public to allow troops to be sent to Morocco. The Spanish government rescinded the right to pay to avoid military service and a wave of patriotism had all classes enlisting. Over 2 months the Melilla garrison was increased to 40,000 in preparation for an offensive. The Spanish troops were untrained, ill-equipped, and devoid of basic maps. All the troops were conscripts as at this time Spain had neither professional troops nor Moroccans under arms. They were largely confined to Melilla but Spanish artillery and naval guns kept up a daily barrage of the ravines near the city. Some columns were sent out to forestall an attack but used brutal methods of repression including destroying houses and devastating fields. Mohammad Amzian also used the pause to recruit fighters.

Marina launched his offensive against Amzian’s Rifs on September 20. The Spanish fielded infantry, cavalry, artillery and an observation balloon. The Rifs fought back hard but by the 27th the Spanish had reached the bodies of their slain comrades at Barranco del Lobo. The Spanish also occupied the height of Mt. Gurug above the ravine where they raised the national flag.

The Spanish made a final push in November; several Rif chiefs sued for peace, and the offensive was declared finished. In fact the massive expenditure on the war caused the Spanish government to block further advances, although by January 1910, the Spanish had subdued some of the more easterly tribes, and pushed out their Melilla enclave to encompass the area from Cape Tres Forcas to the southern inlets of Mar Chica.

However, this was achieved at the cost of 2517 killed. About 8000 tribesmen were killed. The troops were repatriated over the next 6 months. 20,000 of the 40,000 mobilized were retained in the Protectorate.

[Ennath]

July 10, 1460
Battle of Northampton

After the disintegration of the Yorkist army at Ludford Bridge in 1459 (see posting), many of the Yorkist commanders went into self-imposed exile. The Duke of York and his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, retired to the relative safety of Ireland. His principal supporters the Earl of Warwick and his father the Earl of Salisbury, and York's son Edward, Earl of March reached Calais on November 2, 1459, where Warwick found his uncle Lord Fauconberg. In England, the Lancastrians were quick to exploit the Yorkist flight. The Earl of Wiltshire was appointed Lieutenant of Ireland and the Duke of Somerset became Captain of Calais. Neither however succeeded in occupying their new posts as the Irish refused to dislodge York and the gates of Calais remained firmly closed to their new Captain and Somerset’s fleet came under fire. He was able to gain control of the outlying castle of Guines, where the garrison hadn't been paid, but a series of attacks on Calais itself failed.

The Lancastrians gave Somerset an army to storm Calais, but first they had to cross the Channel, so the construction of a fleet was started at Sandwich in Kent. On January 15, 1460 a Yorkist raiding party, under John Dinham, captured this fleet along with Richard Woodville, Earl Rivers, the commander of the garrison. After this success Warwick decided to visit York in Ireland. On the way back a fleet under Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter, briefly threatened to interrupt the journey but retreated when Warwick prepared to attack.

In early June, a Yorkist force captured Sandwich. This time they stayed in the town, and on June 26 the main Yorkist leaders landed there. The army was now led by the Earl of Warwick, despite the presence of his father. The Yorkists began the campaign with 1300-2000 men but they gained strength as they advanced north. The Lancastrian commanders at Canterbury, John Fogge, John Scott and Robert Horne, all changed sides. By the time the army reached London it had grown considerably. The army entered London on July 2, forcing Lord Scales and Robert Hungerford, the Lancastrian commanders, to withdraw into the Tower.

The Yorkists only stayed in London for a couple of days. On July 4 the vanguard began to move north, followed by the main army the next day. Salisbury was left behind to watch Scales in the Tower, where a siege was put in place. Both sides had some artillery. Scales used his to bombard the city of London, killing a number of the citizens, a move that would make him some very vindictive enemies. Salisbury posted his bombards on the south bank of the river and fired at the tower itself, damaging the walls.

When the Yorkists landed in the south King Henry VI, Queen Margaret and the main Lancastrian forces were at Coventry. When the news reached them the Lancastrians moved southeast, eventually reaching Northampton. Medieval Northampton was on the north bank of the River Nene. The Lancastrians took up position in the grounds of Delapré Abbey, with their backs to the river and a water-filled ditch in front of them, topped with stakes; the Lancastrians had more powerful artillery than their opponents. They were also determined to fight. The army was led by Humphrey Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, a former moderate who had now come over to the Royal side.

The Yorkists were still claiming that their argument was with Henry's advisors and not the king, and in order to maintain this stance they sent a delegation to the Lancastrian camp. This included Richard Beauchamp, Bishop of Salisbury, and the Archbishop of Canterbury and the papal legate Francesco Coppini, Bishop of Terni were offered as negotiators. Buckingham, replied "The Earl of Warwick shall not come to the King's presence and if he comes he shall die." During Warwick's advance to Northampton he was twice more denied access to the King's person. Once in position, he sent a message that read "At 2 o'clock I will speak with the King or I will die".

At 2:00 the Yorkists advanced. The Yorkist army was split into three battles, commanded by Fauconberg, Warwick and Edward, earl of March. Fauconberg commanded the vanguard, which consisted of the men recruited in Kent. The exact role of Warwick and March is unclear. The men were in column, but the hard rain blowing in their faces somewhat hindered them. As they closed, Warwick was met by a fierce hail of arrows, but the rain had rendered the Lancastrian cannon quite useless.

When Warwick reached the Lancastrian left flank, commanded by Edmund Grey, Lord of Ruthin, treachery ensued. Grey had his men lay down their weapons and simply allow the Yorkists to have easy access into the camp beyond. This treachery was the result of a secret message from Grey to March saying that he would change sides if the Yorkists would back him in a property dispute with Lord Fanhope. Certainly Warwick had ordered his men not to lay violent hands on ordinary soldiers - especially those wearing the black ragged staff of Lord Grey's men. There may also have been inducements and promises of high office by Warwick. Grey became Treasurer of England in 1463, and later Earl of Kent.

Once the Yorkists were inside the camp the Lancastrians were doomed. Most of the army appears to have surrendered or fled, with some drowning in the River Nene (although many others will have escaped across this shallow river).

The victorious Yorkists took the opportunity to kill many of the Lancastrian leaders. Amongst the dead were Buckingham, Thomas Percy Lord Egremont, John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury and John Beaumont were all killed close to Henry's tent. Henry himself was captured. Away from the leaders the casualties appear to have been quite low - the battle was over too quickly for there to have been heavy casualties in the fighting and the Yorkists had been ordered to spare the common soldiers. There may have been as few as 300 casualties. The battle of Northampton transformed the political situation in England. Queen Margaret and Prince Edward had escaped, but the Yorkists now held the king and many of their most important opponents were dead.

By July 14 the Yorkists were back in London and the combined army pressed the siege of the Tower. It was now clear to Scales and Hungerford that further resistance was futile, and they opened surrender negotiations. The siege ended on July 19. Scales and Hungerford were both granted safe passage by the Yorkists. Hungerford escaped from the city and went on to fight for the Lancastrians at Towton, but Scales was less fortunate. He attempted to reach sanctuary at Westminster Abbey but he was recognized by a woman, taken prisoner by a party of Thames boatmen and murdered. His body was dumped at the church of St Mary Overy in Southwark.

The Yorkists faced the same problem as in 1455. Henry VI was still king, and no agreements forced on the king could be relied on. Richard of York had his own idea of what to do next. He landed in England in early September and made a slow but stately progress across the country to London. On October 15 he reached Westminster, entered Parliament and placed his hand on the empty throne. York had misjudged the mood. His allies had made much of their loyalty to King Henry and the Peers were not ready to see him deposed. York's attempt to claim the throne was rebuffed and he left Parliament having been humiliated.

A more moderate compromise was eventually agreed. Henry would retain his throne but York and his descendents would become his heirs. Prince Edward would be removed from the succession. This settlement would be short-lived. Inevitably the determined Queen Margaret was unwilling to see her son's claim to the throne ignored, and raised a fresh army. The Yorkist leaders scattered to raise fresh armies, but the Lancastrians moved quicker. On December 30 the Duke of York was killed in battle at Wakefield (see posting). His claim now passed to Edward, Earl of March.

[Ennath]

July 11, 1828
Miguelite War

The death of King João VI of Portugal in 1826 created a dispute over the succession. While Dom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, was the king's oldest son, his younger brother Miguel contended that Pedro had forfeited his claim by declaring Brazil independent. Pedro briefly titled himself Pedro IV of Portugal, but neither nation wanted a unified monarchy; consequently, Pedro abdicated in favor of his daughter, Maria, a child of 7. In April, Pedro revised the constitution of 1822 and left the throne to Maria, with his sister Isabel Maria as regent. He attempted to reconcile absolutists and liberals by allowing both factions a role in the government.

The absolutist party of landowners and the Church, however, were not satisfied, and continued to regard Miguel as the legitimate king on the grounds that according to Portuguese succession rules, Pedro had lost the right to the crown, and therefore to choose a successor, when he took possession of a foreign crown (Brazil). They were alarmed by the liberal reforms that had been initiated in Spain by the French in 1808-13 (reforms which the Portuguese feudal aristocracy had been spared) and took heart at the recent restoration of the autocratic Ferdinand VII in Spain (see posting, Battle of the Trocadero) who was eradicating all the Napoleonic innovations.

In February 1828, Miguel returned to Portugal, ostensibly to take the oath of allegiance. He was immediately proclaimed king by his supporters, who pressed him to return to absolutism. A month after his return, Miguel dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Peers and, in May, summoned the traditional Cortes of the three estates to proclaim his accession to absolute power. The Cortes of 1828 assented to Miguel's wish, proclaiming him king as Miguel I on July 11. These acts did not go unchallenged by the Liberals. On May 18, the garrison in Oporto, the center of Portuguese liberalism, declared its loyalty to Pedro and Maria. Other garrisons followed. Miguel suppressed these rebellions, and many thousands of Liberals were either arrested or fled to Spain and Britain.. There followed five years of repression. Only the Azores remained faithful to Pedro

In 1829, Miguel sent a squadron of 22 ships to the Azores. On August 11, the Miguelite squadron attacked the fortifications in the bay near Vila da Praia, on the island of Terceira. After a day of battle the liberals, under e Count of Vila Flor, emerged victorious, taking hundreds of prisoners. After the war the village was renamed the Beach of the Victory (Praia da Vitória) to commemorate the battle .

Meanwhile, in Brazil, relations between Pedro and Brazil's agricultural magnates had become strained. In April 1831, Pedro abdicated in favor of his son, Pedro II, and sailed for Britain. He organized a military expedition there and then went to Terceira to set up a government in exile.

In early 1831, a French citizen was sentenced to public flogging, a fine and exile for allegedly profaning a church, a claim that French officials dismissed. Several other French citizens were similarly detained in what the French government judged to be arbitrary manners. The French sent a ship of line, a frigate and 3 smaller ships to the mouth of the Tagus. With this backing, the French consul demanded reparations. Miguel refused and the French upped the ante, sending Rear Adm. Albin Roussin and the Suffren (90), who increased the demands. On July 11, the squadron attacked. The fort at the river mouth was silenced and the Portuguese warships present struck without firing a shot. The loss crippled the Miguelite blockade of the Azores.

On June 27, 1832, Pedro, with backing from Britain, sailed from the Azores with 7500 soldiers, and on July 8 landed north of Oporto. He entered the city the next day, but was soon besieged by the Miguelite army under Caspar Teixeira, Viscount of Sá Peso da Régua. The siege would last for over a year, punctuated by frequent skirmishes and sorties.

On September 29, the Miguelites attempted to storm the city. Under the cover of a thick morning fog they advanced toward Campanhã on the eastern wall, making some penetrations before being halted at the Rua do Prado. After 9 hours of combat, and having made no significant progress, Teixeira called off the attack, The defenders lost 650 men and the attackers 4000. As a result Dom Miguel decided to head north in an attempt to raise morale in his army.

Also in September 1832, Don Carlos of Spain was banished to Portugal, and as a result many Carlists arrived to support the Absolutist forces. The new Spanish government supported the Liberals.

Eventually Pedro took a risk and, in June 1833, despite the fact that Oporto was still under siege, sent an expedition to the Algarve, under the Duke of Terceira, supported by a naval squadron commanded by Charles Napier, using the alias Carlos de Ponza to escape penalties under the Foreign Enlistment Act. Terceira landed at Faro on June 24.Although the siege of Oporto continued it became a secondary theater of operations. On July 25, the Miguelites made a final major attempt to storm the city. Marshal Saldanha eventually broke the siege on August 18, 1833.

Meanwhile, Napier's squadron (3 frigates and 3 smaller ships) encountered the absolutists' fleet under Manuel Antonio Marreiros (3 ships of the line, a frigate, a xebec and 5 smaller ships) near Cape Saint Vincent on July 5. Knowing he could not long sustain a fight with such a superior opponent, Napier closed and boarded. The Liberals captured all 3 ships of the line, the frigate and a corvette, whose crews agreed to fight from now on for Maria II; another ship came over the next day; the remnant of the Miguelite force fled to Lisbon or Madeira. Napier’s losses were about 30 killed and 60 wounded, as against somewhere between 200 and 300 of the enemy, including Adm. Marreiros. The next day, Dom Pedro named Napier Viscount Cape St Vincent in the peerage of Portugal. Immediately afterwards his fleet was ravaged by cholera (which was raging on the mainland, with appalling loss of life).

Terceira marched north from Faro. Scattered Miguelite forces were defeated at Almada on July 23 and Lisbon fell the following day. Pedro arrived on the 28th. On August 25, the Miguelite army besieged the city. Attacks on the defenses on September 5-14 failed. On October 10, the Miguelites raised the siege and retired to Santarem. Soon after, Maria was proclaimed queen, with Pedro as regent. Several governments, including Britain, France and Belgium recognized the new regime. Pedro’s first act was to confiscate the property of all who had served Dom Miguel. He also suppressed all religious houses and confiscated their property, an act that suspended friendly relations with Rome for nearly 8 years. The absolutists still controlled the rural areas, where they were supported by the aristocracy, and by a peasantry galvanized by the Church. The Liberals occupied Portugal's major cities, where they commanded a sizable following among the middle classes.

Operations against the Miguelites began again in earnest in early 1834. On January 14-16, a Liberal division captured Leira. On February 18, Miguelite General Povoas attempted to capture the Bridge of Asseca, which controls the road to Lisbon. Unfortunately for him, Saldnha anticipated this move and set a trap at Almoster. The road was via a narrow ravine between densely wooded hills. 2 regiments of Liberal Cacadores blocked the Miguelite route of retreat to the bridge of Saint Maria. Meanwhile another 2 regiments, launched an impetuous bayonet charge. The Miguelite defeat was total, with the absolutists losing more than 1000 men.

On April 22, the Quadruple Alliance was signed. Portugal, Spain, Britain and France agreed to banish Dom Miguel from Portugal and Don Carlos from Spain. Spain committed to keep troops in Portugal until the end of the war, Britain promised naval support for Dom Pedro and Isabel of Spain, and Portugal agreed to supply an auxiliary force for operations against Don Carlos in Spain.

On the night of May 15-16 a Miguelite army of 6000 was camped in a strong position on the Heights of Aceiceira, a system of hills and valleys about 4 miles from Thomar. Miguel himself was at Santarem and was not involved in the ensuing battle. The Duke of Terceira, advanced from Thomar on the morning of the May 16 with 6500 men and attacked the position in 3 columns. Resistance was fierce, but the attacks continued and eventually a cavalry charge carried the heights. The Miguelites lost 2900 dead or wounded and 1400 prisoners. The remainder fled towards Gollegao, which was occupied by Terceira the following day. The Liberals lost about 400 men.

This was the last and decisive engagement of the war. The Miguelite army was still formidable (about 18,000 men), but on May 24, 1834, at Evoramonte, a peace was declared by which Dom Miguel formally renounced all claims to the throne of Portugal, was guaranteed an annual pension, and was definitively exiled. Dom Pedro restored the Constitutional Charter, and died on September 24. Maria II resumed her interrupted reign.

[Ennath]

364 BC
Battle of Cynocephalae

The long Spartan-Boeotian conflict ended in 365 BC, but Thebes still had issues to settle on its northern frontier.

Thebes was to take a hard blow the following summer with the loss of Pelopidas, one of its leading commanders. This came about in Thessaly as he led an army north to aid the enemies of his old nemesis Alexander of Pherae. Diodorus’ account indicates that the Theban took 7000 men with him. This probably included 5000 hoplites, 1500 foot skirmishers and 500 horsemen. He then added Thessalian allies, perhaps roughly equal to his Thebans in infantry of all types (the spearmen being Greek mercenaries and the light footmen allied tribesmen) and rather stronger in cavalry with maybe 2000 riders. Pelopidas confronted Alexander where he had taken a strong position behind some steep hills east of Pherae outside of Thessalian Cynoscephalae. Diodorus claimed that the tyrant had an army of 20,000. And Plutarch’s assessment is only a bit smaller, citing an infantry contingent twice that of his Thessalian enemies. This indicates 10,000 hired hoplites and 3000 skirmishers. Given an overall cavalry potential for Thessaly of 6000 riders, a similar ratio for mounted troops yields 4000 horsemen and a total 17,000 combatants.

Action opened with a contest between light infantry for possession of the intervening high ground while the cavalry dueled on the plain. Pelopidas’ riders prevailed below, but it was Alexander’s peltasts that took the heights. When the Thebans’ Thessalian allies then sent their hoplites up to dislodge the enemy, they took significant losses and fell back without doing any real damage. Seeing this, Pelopidas sent a recall to his horsemen and moved out with his Thebans. He personally joined and reorganized the Thessalians, putting them into long files on the left while sending his own hoplites to form up at similar depth on the right wing. He then led this rearranged array up the hilly terrain to the attack. Alexander and his men repulsed 2 or 3 advances, yet each time, Pelopidas’ formation drew back, redressed and came on again. Finally, fearful of the now returning enemy cavalry and its growing threat to their rear, the tyrant and his men took advantage of the opposing phalanx’s latest round of reforming to withdraw down the rear of their position. That they did this in some semblance of order says much for the discipline of Alexander’s professional spearmen; still, they were in at least modest disarray as they got down onto the flat and tried to recover behind their skirmishers.

Seeking to exploit the temporary confusion among his foes and spotting Alexander directly opposite on the enemy right striving to organize his men, Pelopidas led a charge down the rise. Unfortunately, this advance became a ragged affair in its rush, leaving the eager Theban out in front and an easy target for javelinmen below; thus, though he got among these and killed several hand-to-hand, others had shot him down by the time most of the following Thessalians could get there to help. Pelopidas’ hoplites were somehow able to reorder and reengage despite his death and, after their cavalry came up to help, they succeeded in routing Alexander’s army. Adding in a thorough pursuit, the victors ran enemy casualties up to 3000 dead per Plutarch. Costly as this action was to Thebes in the loss of one of the era’s great commanders, it served its strategic purpose well. Alexander was forced to not only return all the lands he had seized, but had to agree to a Theban alliance as well (perhaps only after a second engagement alluded to by Diodorus but not attested elsewhere).

[Ennath]

July 12, 1784
Spanish Bombardment of Algiers

In August 1783, as punishment for the acts of piracy undertaken by the city, a Spanish fleet with Maltese participation under Antonio Barcelo bombarded Algiers for 8 days. The success of the attack, achieved at the cost of less than 50 casualties, caused joy in Spain and encouraged the Regency of Tripoli to make peace with Spain. Despite the heavy damage suffered, the Algerians did not surrender. 5 Algerian privateers captured 2 Spanish merchant vessels near Palamos in September 1783 as a gesture of defiance. The city's defenses were reinforced with a new 50-gun fortress, 4000 Turkish volunteer soldiers were recruited in Anatolia, and European advisors were hired to assist in the building fortifications and batteries. In addition, at least 70 vessels were prepared to repel the Spanish, and a reward of 1000 gold pieces was offered by the Dey to anyone who captured a ship of an attacking fleet.

Meanwhile, in Cartagena, Barcelo had finished preparations for a new expedition. His fleet consisted of 4 80-gun ships of line, 4 frigates, 12 xebecs, 3 brigs, 9 small vessels, 63 gunboats, and 8 bomb vessels. The expedition was financed by Pope Pius VI and supported by the Navy of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which provided 2 ships of the line, 3 frigates, 2 brigs and 2 xebecs under Adm. Bologna, by the Order of Malta, which provided a ship of line, 2 frigates and 5 galleys, and by that of Portugal, which provided 2 ships of line and 2 frigates under Adm. Ramires Esquível. These last joined the allied fleet late and arrived in the middle of the bombardment.

On June 28, the Allied fleet sailed from Cartagena, arriving off Algiers on July 10. Two days later at 8:30 AM, the bombardment began. It was kept up until 4:20 PM, during which time about 600 bombs, 1440 cannonballs and 260 shells were fired over the city, compared to 202 bombs and 1164 cannonballs fired by the Algerians. Major damage to the city and its fortifications and a large fire were observed. An attack by light vessels of the Algerian fleet, composed of 67 ships, was repulsed, 4 of them being destroyed. Allied casualties were minimal: 6 killed and 9 wounded, most of them due to accidents with the fuses of the bombs. Gunboat No. 27, commanded by the Neapolitan ensign José Rodríguez, exploded accidentally, killing 25 sailors.

In the following 8 days, 7 additional attacks were ordered. The Algerians had placed a line of barges armed with artillery that largely prevented the Allied gunboats getting close to their objectives. A shot fired from the fortifications hit the felucca from which Barcelo was directing the attack, sinking it. José Lorenzo de Goicoechea came to the aid of the admiral, who was rescued unscathed. Transferring immediately to another boat, Barcelo continued leading the attack, downplaying the importance of the incident. Finally, on July 21, it was decided to end the attack. Contrary winds forced Barcelo to give the order to return to Cartagena. More than 20,000 cannonballs and bombs had been fired, causing severe damage to the fortifications and the city, and sinking or destroying most of the Algerian vessels and causing heavy casualties. Allied casualties were 53 men killed and 64 wounded, most of them due to accidents.

The Dey of Algiers, under threat of a new expedition that was already being prepared by Barcelo, who had promised attack Algiers every year until the Dey accepted his conditions, agreed to open negotiations with Spain. These culminated in a treaty which was signed on June 14, 1786 by the Dey himself and José de Mazarredo, who came to Algiers in command of a squadron of 2 ships of the line and 2 frigates. Tunisia also preferred to reach an agreement with Spain. As far as these nations were concerned, Barbary piracy and the Barbary Slave Trade in the Mediterranean was ended. However, some years later the problem returned due to the turmoil caused by the Napoleonic Wars.

[Ennath]

July 13, 1863
New York City Draft Riots

New York's economy was tied to the South; by 1822 nearly half of its exports were cotton shipments. In addition, upstate textile mills processed cotton in manufacturing. New York had such strong business connections to the South that on January 7, 1861, Mayor Fernando Wood, a Democrat, called on the city's Board of Aldermen to "declare the city's independence from Albany and from Washington"; he said it "would have the whole and united support of the Southern States." When the Union entered the war, New York City had many sympathizers with the South. The city was also a continuing destination of immigrants. Since the 1840s, most were from Ireland and Germany. In 1860, nearly 25% of the population was German-born, and many did not speak English. The Democratic Party’s Tammany Hall political machine had been working to enroll immigrants as citizens so they could vote in local elections and had strongly recruited Irish, most of whom already spoke English.

New York political offices, including the mayor, were historically held by Democrats, but the election of Abraham Lincoln as president had demonstrated the rise in Republican political power nationally. Newly-elected New York City Republican Mayor George Opdyke was mired in profiteering scandals in the months leading up to the riots. The Emancipation Proclamation of January 1863 alarmed much of the working class in New York, who feared that freed slaves would migrate to the city and add further competition to the labor market. In March 1863, white longshoremen refused to work with black laborers and rioted.

In March 1863, Congress passed the Enrollment Act to establish a draft, as more troops were needed. All male citizens aged 20-35 and all unmarried men 35-45 were subject to military duty. The federal government entered all eligible men into a lottery. Those who could afford to hire a substitute or pay the government $300 might avoid enlistment. Blacks, who were not considered citizens, were exempt.

There were reports of rioting in Buffalo and certain other cities, but the first drawing of draft numbers on July 11 occurred peaceably in Manhattan. The second drawing was held on Monday, July 13, 1863, 10 days after the Union victory at Gettysburg. At 10 AM, a furious crowd of around 500, led by the volunteer firemen of Engine Company 33 (known as the "Black Joke"), attacked the 9th District assistant provost marshal's office, at 3rd Avenue and 47th Street, where the draft was taking place. The crowd threw large paving stones through windows, burst through the doors, and set the building ablaze. When the fire department responded, rioters broke up their vehicles. Others killed horses that were pulling streetcars and smashed the cars. To prevent other parts of the city being notified of the riot, they cut telegraph lines.

Since the New York State Militia had been sent to assist Union troops at Gettysburg, the Metropolitan Police Department was the only force on hand to face the riots. Police Superintendent John Kennedy arrived to check on the situation. Although not in uniform, the mob recognized and attacked him. Kennedy was left nearly unconscious. He had been beaten to a mass of bruises and blood all over his body. Police drew their clubs and revolvers and charged the crowd but were overpowered. The police were badly outnumbered and unable to quell the riots, but they kept the rioting out of Lower Manhattan below Union Square. Immigrants in the "Bloody Sixth" Ward, around the notorious Five Points slum, refrained from involvement in their own neighborhood, but some traveled to other areas to take part..

The mayor's residence on 5th Avenue, 2 District police stations, and other buildings were attacked and set on fire. Other targets included the office of the New York Times. Fire engine companies responded, but some firefighters were sympathetic to the rioters because they had also been drafted. Later in the afternoon, authorities shot and killed a man as a crowd attacked the armory at 2nd Avenue and 21st Street.

The mob beat, tortured and/or killed numerous black people. The Colored Orphan Asylum at 43rd Street and 5th Avenue, that provided shelter for 233 children, was attacked by a mob at around 4 PM. A mob of several thousand, including many women and children, looted the building of its food and supplies. However, the police were able to secure the orphanage for enough time to allow the orphans to escape before the building burned down. Throughout the areas of rioting, mobs attacked and killed at least 120 black people and destroyed their known homes and businesses.

Heavy rain fell on Monday night, helping to abate the fires and sending rioters home, but the crowds returned the next day. Rioters burned down the home of Abby Gibbons, a prison reformer and the daughter of abolitionist Isaac Hopper. Governor Horatio Seymour arrived on Tuesday and spoke at City Hall, where he attempted to assuage the crowd by proclaiming the Conscription Act unconstitutional. Gen. John Wool, commander of the Eastern District, brought approximately 800 soldiers and Marines in from forts in New York Harbor, West Point, and the Brooklyn Navy Yard. He ordered the militias to return to New York.

The situation improved on Wednesday, when assistant provost-marshal-general Robert Nugent received word to postpone the draft. As this news appeared in newspapers, some rioters stayed home. But some of the militias began to return and used harsh measures against the mobs. Order began to be restored on Thursday. The New York State Militia and some federal troops were returned to New York from Frederick, Maryland, after a forced march. In addition, the governor sent in the 74th and 65th Militia Regiments, which had not been in federal service, and a section of the 20th Independent Battery, New York Volunteer Artillery from Fort Schuyler. By July 16, there were several thousand Federal troops in the city. A final confrontation occurred on Thursday evening near Gramercy Park. According to Adrian Cook, 12 people died on the last day of the riots in skirmishes between rioters, the police, and the Army. Conditions in the city were still tense enough that Major Gen. Wool said that "Martial law ought to be proclaimed, but I have not a sufficient force to enforce it."

The exact death toll is unknown, but according to historian James McPherson, 119-120 people were killed. The riots forced hundreds of black people to flee the city. The most reliable estimates indicate at least 2000 people were injured. Total property damage was about $1-5 million ($19.9 million - $99.4 million, adjusted for inflation). The city treasury later indemnified a quarter of the amount.

On August 19, the government resumed the draft in New York. It was completed within 10 days without further incident. Fewer men were drafted than had been feared by the working class: of the 750,000 selected nationwide for conscription, only about 45,000 were sent into active duty.

While the rioting mainly involved the working class, middle and upper-class New Yorkers had split sentiments on the draft and use of federal power or martial law to enforce it. Many wealthy Democratic businessmen sought to have the draft declared unconstitutional. Tammany Democrats did not seek to have the draft declared unconstitutional but helped pay the commutation fees for those who were drafted. In December, the Union League Club recruited over 2000 black soldiers, outfitted and trained them, honoring and sending men off with a parade through the city to the Hudson River docks in March 1864. A crowd of 100,000 watched the procession, which was led by police and members of the Union League Club.

New York's support for the Union cause continued, however grudgingly, and gradually Southern sympathies declined in the city. New York banks financed the war, and the state's industries were more productive than those of the entire Confederacy. By the end of the war, more than 450,000 soldiers, sailors, and militia had enlisted from New York State.