The Military History Thread

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June 28, 1776
Battle of Sullivan’s Island

Following the outbreak of hostilities in April 1775, public sentiment in Charleston, South Carolina, began to turn against the British. Though a new royal governor, Lord William Campbell, arrived in June, he was forced to flee that fall after Charleston's Council of Safety began raising troops for the rebel cause and seized Ft. Johnson. Loyalists in the city increasingly found themselves under attack and their homes raided.

The British, who were engaged in the Siege of Boston in late 1775, began seeking other opportunities to strike a blow against the rebel colonies. Believing the interior of the American South to be friendlier territory with a large number of Loyalists who would fight for the crown, plans moved forward for Maj. Gen. Henry Clinton to embark forces and sail for Cape Fear, NC. Arriving, he was to meet a force of predominantly Scottish Loyalists as well as troops coming from Ireland under Commodore Peter Parker and Maj. Gen. Lord Charles Cornwallis. Sailing south from Boston with 2 companies on January 20, 1776, Clinton called at New York City where he had difficulty obtaining provisions. In a failure of operational security, Clinton's forces made no effort to hide their ultimate destination.

Parker and Cornwallis embarked around 2000 men on 30 transports. Departing Cork on February 13, the convoy encountered severe storms 5 days into the voyage. Scattered and damaged, Parker's ships continued their crossing individually and in small groups. Reaching Cape Fear on March 12, Clinton found that Parker's squadron had been delayed and that the Loyalist forces had been defeated at Moore's Creek Bridge (see posting). Loitering in the area, Clinton met the first of Parker's ships on April 18. The remainder straggled in later that month and in early May after enduring a rough crossing. Determining that Cape Fear would be a poor base of operations, Parker and Clinton assessed their options and began scouting the coast. After learning that the defenses at Charleston were incomplete, the2 officers planned an attack with the goal of capturing the city and establishing a major base in South Carolina. Raising anchor, the combined squadron departed Cape Fear on May 30. As the senior major general, Clinton commanded.

With the beginning of conflict, the president of the South Carolina General Assembly, John Rutledge, called for the creation of 5 regiments of infantry and 1 of artillery. Numbering around 2000, this force was augmented by the arrival of 1900 Continentals and 2700 militia. It was decided to construct a fort on Sullivan's Island. A strategic location, ships entering the harbor were required to pass by the southern part of the island to avoid shoals and sandbars. The task of building Ft. Sullivan was given to Col. William Moultrie and the 2nd South Carolina Regiment. Starting work in March 1776, they constructed 16 foot thick sand-filled walls which were faced with palmetto logs. Work moved slowly and by June only the seaward walls, mounting 31 guns, were complete with the remainder of the fort protected by a timber palisade. To aid in the defense, the Continental Congress dispatched Maj. Gen. Charles Lee to take command. Lee was dissatisfied with the state of the fort and recommended that it be abandoned. Interceding, Rutledge directed Moultrie to “obey [Lee] in everything, except in leaving Fort Sullivan.”

Parker's fleet reached Charleston on June 4. It seems unlikely that the British had access to reliable charts of the estuary, a complex area with sandbanks and intricate channels giving access to the inner harbor. Time was spent taking soundings and putting in buoys. It took until June 7 to get the frigates and transports over the bar and into Five Fathom Hole, an area of open water against the shore to the west of the main estuary. Assessing the incomplete Ft. Sullivan, Parker believed that his force, consisting of the two 50-gun ships Bristol and Experiment, 6 frigates, and the bomb vessel Thunderer, would easily be able to reduce its walls. Scouting the area, Clinton decided to land on nearby Long Island. Located just north of Sullivan's Island, he thought his men would be able wade across Breach Inlet to assault the fort. He received information that the channel between Long Island and Sullivan’s Island at low tide was only 18 inches deep. This erroneous information was not checked before the operation was begun.

The first landing on Long Island came on June 9. Lee hurried a force of 800 men under Lt. Col. William Thompson and 2 guns to block the crossing to Sullivan’s Island. The channel between Long Island and Sullivan’s Island, “the Breach”, turned out to be a patchwork of shoals and subsidiary channels up to 7 feet deep. The boats carrying the British soldiers grounded on the shoals and the soldiers found the channels too deep to wade. In any case, there were only enough ship’s boats available to carry around 500 men across at a time, insufficient for an attack on a prepared position supported by guns. The remaining British troops landed the next day, but there was now no prospect of a successful crossing. The two sides engaged in a long range and sporadic exchange of cannon fire.

It took 2 weeks, until June 27, for Commodore Parker to kedge his 50 gun ships across the bar and into Five Fathom Hole, an operation that required the removal of the ships’ guns to lighten them sufficiently.

On June 28, the bomb ketch Thunder, escorted by HMS Friendship, anchored a mile and a half from Ft. Sullivan and opened fire. During the morning, the first line of British warships, Active (28), Bristol (50), Experiment (50) and Solebay (28) anchored in a line within 400 yards of the fort, and, regulating their movement by way of spring cables attached to their anchor lines, opened fire on the fort. The second line, Syren (28), Actaeon (28) and Sphinx (20), took up positions covering the gaps between the first line ships and also opened fire.

The American gunners began to return the fire, with the major disadvantage that there was only enough powder in the fort for 35 rounds per gun. Each shot was carefully aimed, in contrast to the broadsides fired by the ships. There does not appear to have been any shortage of cannon balls. Chain shot was used to destroy the ships’ rigging.

Thunderer was forced to break off as its mortars had become dismounted. With the bombardment underway, Clinton began moving across Breach Inlet. Nearing the shore, his men came under heavy fire from American troops and Clinton ordered a retreat to Long Island. After an hour of firing, acting on the commodore’s order, the second line ships weighed anchor and moved up the estuary, with the intention that they would move around the headland into the inlet behind the fort, and bombard the garrison in enfilade, the shots striking the area of the fort that was incomplete and provided the least protection to the American gunners. The ships, sailing up the estuary, suddenly grounded on an area of shoal called the Middle Ground, positioned, as the name suggests, in the middle of the estuary. As they went aground, Sphinx ran into Actaeon, losing her bowsprit. By the end of the day’s fighting, Sphinx and Syren got themselves clear, although damaged. Actaeon was stuck fast.

The fort was struck repeatedly, but the palmetto trunks used in the structure absorbed the shock and the fort’s structure remained intact. The American gunners were protected by the thick sand and timber walls and suffered few casualties. The British ships were too close to engage with such an enemy. Both 50 gun ships had their anchors shot away and, swinging round, took raking shots in the stern, killing and maiming crew, dismounting guns, smashing bulkheads and equipment and blasting holes at each end of the hull.

Gen. Charles Lee visited Fort Sullivan during the afternoon. Seeing the low state of the ammunition supply he sent over a further 700 pounds of gunpowder from the city. By the time the powder arrived, the fort’s guns had been silent for an hour, but they now resumed firing. The bombardment continued until 11 PM, when the British ships cut their cables and made their way back down the estuary. The battle was over. The next morning showed the Actaeon to be firmly stuck on the Middle Ground shoal. The crew set her on fire and came away in her boats.

British forces sustained 220 killed and wounded. Moultrie's losses were 12 killed and 25 wounded. Clinton’s troops remained on Long Island for a further 3 weeks. Once it was clear that nothing further could be achieved, the British troops embarked on the transports and, escorted by HMS Solebay, headed for New York. The other British warships remained in the estuary carrying out the repairs necessary to make them seaworthy.

The victory at Sullivan's Island saved Charleston and, along with the Declaration of Independence a few days later, provided a much needed boost to American morale. For the next few years, the war remained focused in the north.

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June 29, 1660
Battle of Polonka

In late June 1660, the Treaty of Oliva brought peace between Poland-Lithuania, Sweden, Brandenburg-Prussia, and the Hapsburgs, ending the main phase of the Northern War. However, the war between Poland-Lithuania and Russia continued. The Russians occupied most of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and a Lithuanian army under Pawel Jan Sapieha moved to evict them.

The Lithuanians were supported by Polish units under Stefan Czarniecki and their immediate objective was to end the siege of Lachowicze. The Polish-Lithuanian army numbered 13,000 men and 2 guns. Facing them was a Russian army under Ivan Andreevich Khovansky, who had unknown number of soldiers (some estimates claim 24,000; while some claim only 8500).

On the morning of June 28, the Polish vanguard, marching towards Baranowicze, crossed the Polonka river, east of the town of Polonka. Here, they encountered a Russian unit, and a skirmish began. When the main Russian forces approached, the Poles withdrew behind the river, and the Polish-Lithuanian army prepared for battle. The Poles were placed on the right flank, the Lithuanians on the left, while the center comprised mixed Polish units, together with artillery.

The Russians attacked first, storming the Polonka River levee. They were met with a heavy fire, and a counterattack by Polish hussars pushed them back to their start point. Khovansky then decided to attack the Lithuanian flank, using his cavalry, but was repulsed.

Czarniecki’s dragoons now attacked an captured the eastern bank of the levee, and the Polish-Lithuanian army launched a general attack. A Polish cavalry unit that had been sent to bypass the marshes attacked the Russian left, while other cavalry forced the Russian foot out of their positions. The Polish horse on the right managed to break through and threaten the Russian rear. Khovansky and his remaining cavalry retreated towards Polotsk, pursued by the Lithuanian light horse. The trapped Russian infantry was captured or massacred.

The Russians lost at least 4200 troops, to a loss of less than 350 for the Polish-Lithuanian army. The Poles now had the initiative in the war, which would drag on until 1667.

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June 30, 1208
Battle of Philippopolis

After the 4th Crusade seized Constantinople in 1204 (see posting), the crusaders established a new empire there and continued to fight the states which emerged from the Byzantine Empire - the Despotate of Epiros in Europe and the Nicaean Empire in Asia Minor. Its Emperor Baldwin I rejected the peace proposal of the Bulgarian Emperor Kaloyan and in the following year the Crusader army was annihilated by the Bulgarians in the battle of Adrianople (see posting) and Baldwin himself was captured and died as a prisoner in Tarnovo.

However, Kaloyan was murdered during a siege of Thessaloniki in 1207. The conspirators were organized by his cousin Boril who succeeded the Bulgarian crown. The new Tsar had to cope with the supporters of the country's legitimate heir Ivan Asen II who was a minor at the time. This gave precious time for the Latin Empire to reorganize.

In the spring of 1208, Boril judged that the internal situation in Bulgaria had calmed enough to turn to foreign affairs. He continued the policy of his predecessor of warring against the Latin Empire. The Bulgarian army invaded Thrace and defeated the Crusaders near Beroe (modern Stara Zagora). Inspired, Boril marched southward and, on June 30, encountered the main Latin army. Boril had 27-30,000 men, 7000 of them the mobile Cuman cavalry which had been crucial at Adrianople. The Latin army numbered 20-24,000, including several hundred knights. Boril tried to apply the same tactics used by Kaloyan at Adrianople - the mounted archers harassed the Crusaders, trying to stretch their line to lead them towards the main Bulgarian force. The knights, however, had learned their lesson and did not repeat the mistake. Instead, they organized a trap of their own and attacked the detachment which was personally commanded by the Tsar, who had only 1600 men with him. Boril fled and the whole Bulgarian army pulled back.

The Bulgarians knew that the enemy would not pursue into the mountains so they retreated towards one of the eastern passes of the Balkan Mountains, Turia. The Crusaders who followed were attacked in hilly country by the Bulgarian rearguard. The Latin detachment was hard pressed until the main army arrived and the rearguard eventually pulled back. The Crusaders then returned to Philippopolis.

The defeat was not disastrous and in the following year the war resumed. Henry managed to win over Alexius Slav, who ruled the Rhodopes, and married him to his daughter. In 1211 the Bulgarians formed an alliance with the Nicaeans, but the allies could not take Constantinople. After that failure Boril reorientated his policy and the two Empires made peace after the marriage of Kaloyan's daughter Maria and Emperor Henry.

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1477
Austrian-Hungarian War

Matthias Corvinus of Hungary and Frederick III of Austria had been rivals stretching back to Matthias' accession in 1458 after the early death of Frederick's Habsburg cousin King Ladislaus the Posthumous. At this time, Frederick held the Holy Crown of Hungary and was a candidate for becoming Hungarian king himself. Matthias, backed by the Bohemian king George Podebrad whose daughter Catherine he married in 1461, finally prevailed: the two rivals settled their disagreements in 1463 with the Treaty of Wiener Neustadt, in which Frederick recognized the de facto King of Hungary and returned the Holy Crown to Matthias for a heavy ransom.

With the consent of Pope Paul II, Matthias invaded Moravia in 1468, instigating the Bohemian War with his former ally George of Podebrad, on the pretext of protecting Catholicism against the Hussite movement - in fact to depose his father-in-law. Welcomed by the German nobility in Silesia and Lusatia, as well as by Catholic Czechs, Matthias in 1469 pronounced himself Bohemian king. Never able to seize Prague however, Matthias' war would drag on with Podebrad's successor, the Polish prince Vladislaus Jagiellon, until the latter recognized Matthias' gains in the 1478 Treaty of Brno. Frederick, at the same time stuck in the French–Habsburg rivalry over the Burgundian succession, had initially assisted Matthias against the Hussites. Contributing very little however, Frederick soon reversed his role and forged an alliance with Vladislaus, whom he enfeoffed with Bohemia in 1477. Angered by this action and recalling previous insults, Matthias proceeded to press for a peace with Vladislaus and invaded Frederick's Austrian lands.

A short war resulted in the Treaty of Korneoburg-Gmunden, which required the Empire to pay reparations to Hungary. However, these were never paid despite several warnings and delays. As tensions rose, both countries began looking for allies amongst the other's nobility. The situation was further inflamed by the defection of Johann Beckensloer, Archbishop of Esztergom, to the Empire where he laid claim to the Archbishopric of Salzburg. Beckensloer took with him part of the Hungarian treasury and lent it to Frederick in exchange for Salzburg. The incumbent, Bernard II of Rohr, was convinced to step down, but he recanted and reasserted his claim the same year. The emperor had the canons of Salzburg ignore Bernard's claim, who in turn sought the protection of Matthias in November. On Bernard's behalf, Hungary seized the properties of the archdiocese of Salzburg in Styria and Carinthia by the end of the year. Since the archdiocese was a secular-independent principality with holdings spread across the secular provinces, this did not mean war with the Empire.

The Hungarian army confronted Imperial troops several times during the seizures. The ambiguous state of conflict led the Hungarians to occupy some Imperial castles, including Radkersburg, and resulted in the siege of Graz. Frederick declared this a breach of the peace, but Matthias replied that Hungarian troops were entering territories belonging to Archbishop Bernard, and were there on the archbishop's invitation. Furthermore, the Hungarian king reminded the Emperor of the outstanding reparations payment, which entitled Hungary to collect the debt by other means. In the spring of 1482, Matthias sent 4000 cavalry, led by Johann Zeleny of Schonau, to plunder Austrian territory along the Danube up to Passau. The incursion was stopped by a truce. Nonetheless, war was inevitable as both sides continued to strengthen their forces.

In July 1482, Mattias ,moved to besiege Hainburg. The castle was sited on a hilltop surrounded by the Danube; the siege proceeded slowly due to the lack of siege weapons. The Empire deployed 4000 troops, led by Ruprecht von Reichenberg, to lift the siege. Matthias I dispatched troops to determine the size and location of the relief force. The scouts ran into the Imperial army at Rohrau, and launched an assault but were defeated, with 70 nobles captured. The Hungarians were forced to raise the siege, but immediately prepared for a second, this time taking care to include siege gear. In mid-August the siege was resumed. Again the Austrians organized a relief army. Matthias took 8000 men and dug in, while the Imperials prepared to run supplies into the town; however, this was foiled by Hungarian sentries. On September 23, a Hungarian cavalry unit launched an unauthorized attack on Imperial positions; this caused an Imperial retreat. Matthias declined to pursue and returned to the siege. The town fell on the 30th, after a week of bombardment. Meanwhile, Frederick had failed to gain help from the Prince-electors and the Imperial States. In 1483 he fled Vienna for Wiener Neustadt.

In January 1483, Kőszeg was captured by the Hungarians and in April Klosterneuburg fell as well. In 1484, the Hungarians attacked Lower Austria from three directions. Bruck an der Leitha fell on March 12 to the 1st column. The second reached Krems and Stein and waited on a nearby river island. The 3rd army invaded the Duchies of Styria and Carinthia to block Imperial forces from uniting. Meanwhile, Matthias occupied Kahlenberg in April and Istvan Davidhazy went on to encircle Korneuburg. The Emperor decided to relieve the city and managed to smuggle supplies in by ships and also sent a relief army. Being informed of the advancing Austrians, Davidhazy opted for a pre-emptive strike in the vicinity of Stockerau. Initially, the Imperials had the upper hand, forcing the Hungarians into retreat. However, the victors became disorganized while looting the Hungarian camp and a counterattack routed them. Korneuburg fell soon after. The rest of Lower Austria was annexed the following year and Frederick had to make peace with Matthias allowing him to keep his conquests. However the conflict aggravated their relationship for the time being. Meanwhile, the Turks were raiding the poorly protected southeastern part of Matthias’ realm.

Vienna was now all but cut off from the Empire. The city was ravaged by famine, although Frederick did succeed in sending in some supplies by 16 vessels on the Danube. On January 15, 1485, Matthias called on the city to surrender, but Captain von Wulfestorff refused. The blockade was fully in place as soon as Matthias attacked Kaiserebersdorf, where he became the target of an assassination attempt when a cannonball nearly killed him. Matthias suspected treachery, as the accuracy of the shot had been too precise to have come from a long distance shot - only someone who knew the whereabouts of the King would have been able to come so near to killing him. He accused Jaroslav von Boskowitz, brother of his mercenary Captain Tobias von Boskowitz, of having been bribed. Jaroslav was summarily beheaded. This led to Tobias’ defection to the Empire. After Kaiserebersdorf was captured in mid-1485 the fate of Vienna was sealed. Matthias stationed his armies at the Hundsmühle flour mills and in Gumpendorf on the south side of the Vienna River. The King had 17 siege guns, which kept up a constant barrage. At the same time, he also ordered the construction of 2 siege towers (one of which was burnt by the Viennese militia). Matthias made his incursion into Leopoldstadt on May 15, which made the final assault imminent. The Viennese knew it and surrendered. Their only condition was that their citizens' privileges be preserved. In 1486, the Hungarians pushed further. On October 4, he besieged heavily-fortified Retz, which fell on the 10th after heavy fighting.

Finally, at the start of 1487, Mattias moved against Wiener Neustadt, opening a siege on January 13. The town was surrounded by 3 ditches and a powerful rectangular chain of ashlar stone walls, with the suburbs protected by a wide moat. The surrounding area was swampy and gritty, which complicated the task of the besiegers. The initial assault took the suburbs and Matthias moved his heavy guns forward. These fired constantly through the spring, eventually bringing down 6 towers. Meanwhile, Imperial captains Johann von Königsberg and Ruprecht von Reichenberg successfully brought in supplies. Reichenberg even torched 2 of the siege towers on his out. After 7 months the city deputies came to the royal camp requesting a cease-fire. Terms were agreed on July 2, that the city would surrender if no relief arrived by mid-August.

Meanwhile, Albert III, Duke of Saxony intervened at the request of Frederick. He gathered an army of 3000 men and marched to Linz where he got support from its archbishop. He officially declared war on Hungary on August 9. The two armies met at Sankt Pölten where minor skirmishes occurred but no major confrontation. Matthias wrote him that his war was with Austria, not the Empire. While this diplomatic correspondence went on, the deadline at Wiener Neustadt passed. On August 17 the city surrendered. Albert agreed to withdraw from the war.

Papal mediation now brought a truce. In 1488, Frederick agreed to peace on the basis of the status quo as he was involved with war in Flanders, where his son Maximilian was hard pressed (see posting, Flemish Revolt against Maximilian). Peace was ratified on April 30, 1489.

When Matthias Corvinus died from a stroke on April 6, 1490, Frederick was able to regain the Austrian lands. However, he could not enforce the Habsburg succession to the Hungarian throne and in 1491 his son King Maximilian I signed the Peace of Pressburg with Vladislaus Jagiellon, who was elected Matthias' successor in Hungary. The treaty arranged for the return of Matthias' conquests, and the agreement that Maximilian would succeed Vladislaus should he produce no heir. This did not happen as Vladislaus' son Louis II was born in 1506, but the Habsburgs did exert significant pressure on the Jagiellonians until their defeat by the Ottomans in 1526.

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July 1, 1917
Kerensky Offensive

On May 22, 1917, the government of Alexander Kerensky forced the resignation of the Tsar’s commander-in-chief, Mikhail Alexeev, replacing him with Alexei Brusilov. The new commander immediately began planning a great offensive similar to the one of 1916, although further south, focusing on Lemberg. Kerensky approved the planning. Although he needed peace, he also needed aid from the western Allies; this was not likely to be forthcoming unless he could prove that Russia could still contribute to the war effort. Thus he was forced to gamble on a risky offensive. On June 30, 1917, over 1000 guns opened up on enemy positions.

There was little real prospect for the offensive as over 2 million men had deserted since October, with few replacements available. There were strong popular demands for peace, especially within the army, whose fighting capabilities were quickly deteriorating. Discipline had reached a crisis point. The Petrograd Soviet's Order No. 1 tremendously weakened the power of officers, giving an overriding mandate to "soldier committees". The abolition of the death penalty was another contributing factor, as was the presence of revolutionary agitators at the front, who promoted a defeatist agenda (and whom Kerensky tolerated considerably more than conservative agitators). There were very few commands that Stavka was able to implement, simply because they would have been ignored by the men. Riots and mutiny at the front became common and officers were often the victims of soldier harassment and even murder. On June 12, the Provisional Government decided to punish insubordinate units by disbandment; this led to mutinies in many units hoping to be removed from the firing line. Brusilov was forced to depend greatly on the shock battalions set up by Alexeev with volunteers taken from units throughout the army.

The attack was to be launched by Southwestern Front (Alexei Gutor). In the north, 11th Army was to attack Austrian 2nd Army at its hinge with the Austro-German Südarmée (4 German, 3 Austrian and 1 Ottoman divisions under Count Felix von Bothmer). In the south, 8th Army was to assault the juncture of Austrian 3rd and 7th Armies. While these two operations were going on 7th Army would frontally assault the Südarmée with the intention of keeping it from reinforcing either flank. The Russians assembled 40 infantry and 8 cavalry divisions to face a Central Powers force of 26 infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade.

The artillery barrage was well-supplied with shells and was the most intense the Russians had ever launched. However, the shells dropped on positions that were devoid of manpower. Well warned of the offensive through deserters and the Petrograd news media, the Central Powers staffs had evacuated the front line trenches. Strangely enough, the Central Powers guns were silent.

In the morning of July 1 the artillery stopped. Kerensky, at 11th Army's observation post, was unsure if the soldiers would leave their trenches. However, the infantry did advance, but they did so without artillery support, nor did the artillery respond when the Austrian guns finally opened fire. Nevertheless, the Czech 19th Division collapsed, leaving a huge gap in 2nd Army's line. The Russians moved into good positions on the heights of Zborov and Korshiduv. The Russians took nearly 18,000 prisoners along with 21 guns, in the first 3 days. Here the advance stalled.

7th Army in the center of the line was the strongest of the 3 engaged in the offensive. The attack began on July 4 instead of in conjunction with the assault on 2nd Army. The delay alerted their enemy. The Russians, after occupying the abandoned front trenches, ran into heavy artillery and machine gun fire. Losses were horrendous. In a number of places, not even the abandoned trenches could be held. Nevertheless, 7th Army gained a few miles but the Südarmée still held the line. On the left flank, 8th Army's progress was better. The Russians exploited the gaps left by the abandonment of the front line defenses and created a salient that bulged ahead to capture Halicz on the following day. Fearing the worst, the Austrians threw in German reserves to shore up the line. Sent in too soon, they were chewed up. After 3 days fighting, 8th Army had netted approximately 10,000 prisoners.

The Central Powers' reaction was cautious. When Ludendorff received reports of the attacks he telephoned Max Hoffmann, eastern front chief of staff, but the conversation was not centered on containing the drive. Instead, Ludendorff asked if Hoffmann still thought a drive through Tarnopol would be successful and how many divisions would he need. Ludendorff gave the go ahead and promised 6 divisions in 14 days. Hoffmann noted in his diary that “the Russians are attacking” and he hoped that they would keep it up for 8-10 days. This would extend the Russian supply and communication lines to the point of breaking; however, within a few days the offensive was already showing signs of faltering amid increasing instances of indiscipline and insubordination as troops sometimes refused to advance. In some cases Russian officers had to use guns to force soldiers to muster for the line of attack. Fortunately, the shock battalions were still effective.

The capture of Halicz on July 7 severed the rail link between Lemberg and Stanislau. By the end of the day, the Russians had crossed the Lomnitza valley and were attacking Kalusz which the Austrians, now without reserves, were forced to abandon. The following day, bolstered by German reinforcements and an armored train, the Austro-Germans attempted to retake the town. The counterattack was initially successful but the Russians, in house to house fighting, soon forced their enemies out. The retreating troops pulled back to the left bank of the Stryi River where they managed to hold the Russians with the aid of heavy rains that turned the otherwise tranquil streams into raging torrents and made roads impassable.

The promised German divisions (only 4 could be spared from the west), began arriving on July 9 and were massed in front of Russian 11th Army. The start date for their attack was to be July 15 but the rains caused a postponement to the 19th.

In 8 days of fighting, Russian 8th Army had driven a salient 55 miles wide and 40 miles deep, pressing Austrian 3rd Army against the flank of the Südarmée, threatening its rear. Disregarding logical thinking, the Südarmée did not pull back to avoid encirclement. Had it done so, Kerensky and Brusilov would have achieved the victory they were seeking and possibly reformed the Russian army to better protect the fledgling Republic from Bolshevik take over. Instead, the Südarmée stood firm as did the Austrian 7th. The salient, rather than becoming a means for defeating the Südarmée, became a trap for the Russians.

South of the salient, Austrian 7th Army began probing the Russian line along the Lomnitza. To their amazement, the Russians pulled back and took up positions on the Lodziany River. Sensing that the Russian positions were lightly held, the Austrians made a concerted effort along a line from Novica to the Lodziany to Kraisne. Novica was taken. Fresh Russian reserves countered and retook the town but Bavarian and Croatian units took the heights above the village. 2 attempts to dislodge the Central Powers troops failed. To avoid the entrapment, the Russians abandoned Novica and Kalusz on July 18. That day Gutor was replaced as head of Southwestern Front by Lavr Kornilov.

On July 19, the Germans carried the Russian first lines at Brzesany at the point where the salient was hinged with Russian 7th Army and pushed forward, aided by insubordination in many Russian units. The effect of the attack was felt all along the line. Under pressure from south and the north, the Russians withdrew from the positions west of Halicz. To keep the withdrawal from turning into a rout, 8th Army's staff moved reserves ahead. These fresh troops encouraged those who were withdrawing and for a few brief moments, the German advance was held, but the general retreat had already begun. 20 miles south of Brody, the retreat of the 607th Mlynovskii Regiment caused a domino effect of pullbacks all along the line. A gap of 25 miles opened and into it poured the Austro-Germans.

By the 21st, the Germans reached the Sereth River the outskirts of Tarnopol. Brief counterattacks near Trembowla on July 21 and 23 broke the German line but strong artillery fire drove the Russians back. The Germans entered Tarnopol after 2 days fighting. By July 22, the salient was gone and the Russians were on the Zlota Lipa. With the fall of Tarnopol, the 8th pulled back toward the old 1914 border. Three days later the remaining 8th Army units made a stand between the Dniester and the Pruth, east of Czernowitz. The Austro-Germans breached the line in a few places and took Czernowitz but on the whole the Russian line held. It was the last action for the Russian 1917 summer offensive as well as the Central Powers counteroffensive. The Germans and Austrians had advanced 90 miles in 10 days. Their supply and communication lines were over extended and the soldiers exhausted.

Far from strengthening Russian morale, this offensive proved that it no longer existed. No Russian general could now count on the soldiers under his command actually doing what they were ordered to do. In Petrograd, there were allegations of why the offensive had failed. News of unit desertions had reached the capital as early as July 12. With the approval of the soldiers' soviets, unit commanders were given permission to shoot deserters; however, the drastic measure did little to stem the tide. Putting all the recriminations aside, Kerensky knew that the army was no longer capable of continuing the war; however, ever an optimist, he felt sure that tighter control would bring them around. His first reaction to the failure was to replace Brusilov with Kornilov. The second action was to seek an end to the war that could only result in the new Republic's demise if the slaughter continued. Casualties included 40,000 killed, less than 3000 captured, and 20,000 wounded. Kerensky opened a channel through the Swedes to the Central Powers in an effort to bring about a peace. It was too late; the Bolsheviks accelerated their planning for a takeover.

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July 2, 1704
Battle of the Schellenberg

At the beginning of 1704 the Empire was in great distress. Landau and the fortress of Kehl had been taken by the French, and the important cities of Regensburg, Augsburg and Passau had been taken by the Franco-Bavarian armies. The Empire was crying for help, and the only ones able to give it were the seapowers. Although planning for a campaign on the Moselle was well advanced, the Duke of Marlborough was already planning to take his Anglo-Dutch army to the Danube.

The 250-mile march to the Danube started on May 19 when Marlborough marched from Bedburg near Cologne towards the Franco-Bavarian army of Elector Maximilian and Marshal Ferdinand de Marsin on the Danube. Marlborough had initially deceived the French commanders - Marshal Francois, Duc de Villeroi in the Spanish Netherlands and the Duc de Tallard along the Rhine - into thinking his target was Alsace or the Moselle farther to the north. However, when the Elector was notified on June 5 of Marlborough's march from the Low Countries, he had correctly predicted that it was Bavaria that was the Allies' real target.

Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I was keen to lure the Elector back into the Imperial fold after he had switched allegiance to fight for King Louis XIV. Given this duplicity, Marlborough thought the best way to secure Bavaria for the Alliance was to negotiate from a position of strength by invading the Elector's territories, hoping to persuade him to change sides before he could be reinforced. By June 22 Marlborough's army had linked up with elements of the Margrave of Baden’s Imperial forces at Launsheim; by the end of June their combined strength totaled nearly 80,000 men. The Franco-Bavarian army camped at Ulm was numerically inferior, and a large part of the Elector's troops were scattered in garrisons as far as Munich and the Tyrol, but his position was far from desperate: if he could hold out for a month, Tallard would arrive from the Rhine with French reinforcements.

Once the Allies had combined their forces, the Elector and Marsin moved their 40,000 troops into the entrenched camp between Dillingen and Lauingen on the north bank of the Danube. The Allied commanders, unwilling to attack such a strong position, passed round Dillingen to the north in the direction of Donauwörth. If captured, the bridgehead at Donauwörth (overlooked by the Schellenberg) would offer new communications with the friendly states in central Germany by way of Nördlingen and Nuremberg, as well as providing a good crossing-place over the Danube for re-supply when the Allies were south of the river.

The Schellenberg heights offer a commanding position for any defender. However, its oval shaped summit was flat and open, and its 70-year-old defenses were dilapidated. When the attack came, the bastions, the curtain, and the ditch were fairly complete along the long eastern face from the Danube to the wooded hilltop, but in the shorter section from the wood to the fort - where Marlborough's attack was delivered - the earthwork had been more hastily made up of brushwood thinly covered with soil. The western section of the lines ran steeply downhill from the fort to the city walls. Here, there was little to show in terms of defenses, but to compensate the line could be protected by a flanking fire from the town.

The army at the Schellenberg commanded by Giovanni Baptista, Count d’Arco, a Piedmontese officer and Alexander von Maffei, and consisted of 16 Bavarian and 6 French battalions and 4 Cavalry regiments totaling about 13,000 men. were drawn from Bavaria's best units including the Elector's Guards and the regiment of the Prince Electoral, led by veteran officers. Donauwörth was held by a French battalion and 2 battalions of Bavarian militia.

On June 30 the allied army of about 50,000 marched from Giengen and scouts soon noticed that the Bavarians were busy building fortifications on the Schellenberg, though they were far from ready. The allies crossed the Wörnitz and marched southeast on its left bank. Although Marlborough knew a frontal attack on the Schellenberg would be costly, he was convinced that it was the only way of securing its speedy capture of the town: unless he captured the summit by nightfall, it would never be taken - the defenses would be too strong, and the main Franco-Bavarian army would arrive. At about 1700, Marlborough's artillery commander, Col. Holcroft Blood, pounded the enemy from a position near Berg; each salvo was countered by d'Arco's guns from the fort and from just outside the Boschberg wood. For the attack they formed an assault force of 6000 elite soldiers.

There was just enough time before nightfall to storm the position on its north side, but not enough for simultaneous attacks from other sides. The attack went in around 1800. As the range closed the Allies became easy targets for the Franco-Bavarian fire; the confusion exacerbated by hand-grenades thrown down the slope by the defenders. To aid their assault, each Allied soldier carried a bundle of fascines, but these were mistakenly thrown into a dry gully, formed by the recent summer rains, instead of the defensive trench about 50 yards farther on. Nevertheless, the Allies pushed on into savage hand-to-hand fighting. But the assault failed to penetrate the defenses, and the Allies were forced to fall back to their lines. Gen. Johan van Goor, a favorite of Marlborough who had led the attack, was among the dead. A second assault, led by Count von Limburg Styrum, proved no more successful, with the count mortally wounded.

At this moment, Marlborough received intelligence that the defenses linking the town walls with the breastwork on the hill were now sparsely manned (the unsuccessful attacks had drawn d'Arco's men away from other parts of the stronghold, leaving his left flank highly vulnerable). The Margrave of Baden (who had entered the battle half an hour after Marlborough), also noticed this opportunity and was soon hurrying with his grenadiers from the hamlet of Berg, and across the Kaibach stream to assault the position. Baden’s Imperial troops (now supported by 8 of Marlborough's reserve battalions), easily breached these weakened defenses, defeated the 2 battalions of infantry and a handful of cavalry still defending the area, and were able to form up at the foot of the Schellenberg, coming between d'Arco and the town. Noting the danger, d'Arco hurried to summon his dismounted French dragoons (held back in the lee of the hill). However, 3 companies of Baden's grenadiers confronted them with concentrated volleys, forcing the cavalry to retire. This action left d'Arco out of contact with his main force fiercely resisting on the crest.

Aware that Imperial troops had breached the defenses Marlborough launched a third assault. This time the attackers formed a broader front, requiring d'Arco's men to spread their fire. At first the defenders stood firm, but they were soon conscious of Baden's infantry approaching from the direction of the town. After establishing themselves at the summit of the Heights on the Allied right, Baden's men now fired upon the surprised defenders of the Schellenberg, compelling them to re-align in order to meet this unexpected threat. Consequently, Marlborough's assaulting troops on the Allied left, supported by a fresh echelon of dismounted English dragoons, were able to scramble over the now weakly defended breastwork and push the defenders back to the crown of the hill.

The outnumbered defenders of the Schellenberg had resisted the Allied assaults for 2 hours, but now under pressure from 2 sides, their stalwart defense was over. As panic spread, Marlborough unleashed 35 squadrons of cavalry and dragoons to pursue the fleeing troops. A pontoon bridge over the Danube had collapsed under their weight, and many of d'Arco's troops, most of whom could not swim, drowned trying to cross the fast-flowing river. Only to the west could Marlborough detect a few Franco-Bavarian battalions crossing the Danube by Donauwörth's bridge in tolerable order, before darkness descended over the battlefield.

The defenders lost 5000 dead and 3000 captured. The Elector had lost many of his best troops which was to have a profound effect on the Franco-Bavarian forces in the rest of the campaign. Of the 22,000 Allied troops engaged, 1342 were killed and 3700 wounded, overwhelming the hospitals that Marlborough had set up in Nördlingen. Among the dead were 10 general officers and 28 colonels, the highest casualty total for senior officers of the war.

With the Schellenberg in their hands the allies did not yet possess Donauwörth itself. Their preparations for laying pontoon bridges over the Danube however prompted the garrison to evacuate the town on July 3. Marlborough estimated that a siege of Donauwörth itself could have cost him 10 days. He crossed the Danube on the 5th and began to devastate Bavaria.

[Ennath]

July 3, 1898
Battle of SantiagoBay

On April 25, 1898, the United States declared war on Spain. The Spanish command sent a squadron under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete to defend Cuba and keep an open line of communication with the Spanish garrison there. Cervera opposed this strategy. He believed his squadron lacked the strength necessary to engage the American fleet, preferring instead to engage the Americans near the Canary Islands or to raid the US coast, but he was overruled by his superiors in Madrid.

On April 29, Cervera steamed from Cape Verde. There was some panic in the US, where it was unknown what his ships might do: attack the largely undefended East Coast while the fleet sailed about in an effort to engage him, prey upon American shipping, or perhaps sail up the Potomac and bombard Washington. Ultimately, Cervera did none of these, managing to evade the US fleet for several weeks before finally seeking refuge in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. On May 29, an American squadron sighted Cervera's squadron, and quickly clamped a blockade around the mouth of the harbor. Moreover, by early July the Spanish were nearly surrounded at Santiago from the east by an advancing American army numbering some 16,000, by 3000 Cuban insurgents to the west, and by the American fleet to the south.

The Spanish squadron consisted of the armored cruisers Almirante Oquendo, Vizcaya, Infanta Maria Teresa, and Cristóbal Colón in addition to the torpedo boat destroyers Pluton and Furor. The cruisers displaced approximately 7000 tons each, but were not heavily armored, nor did their armament match the Americans. Cervera’s fleet was at a further disadvantage due to the condition of its ships. The breech mechanisms in many of the guns were dangerously faulty, many of the ships' boilers were in need of repair, several ships needed careening (bottom-cleaning), and the most well-protected ship in the fleet, the Cristobal Colon, had not even had her main battery installed, carrying wooden dummy guns instead. Cervera’s crews were poorly-trained, lacking practice in gunnery, and their training had emphasized rapid fire at regular intervals in contrast to the Americans who favored more deliberate aimed fire. Cervera’s force was relatively lightly armed, a result of recent budget cuts but also a naval policy that for many years favored the construction of light, swift ships to patrol their far-flung empire.

With the American victory at San Juan Hill on July 1 (see posting), Santiago’s fall was only a matter of time. Ramon Blanco y Erenas, the top military commander in Cuba, ordered Cervera to make for Cienfuegos, to the west. The breakout was planned for 0900 on Sunday, July 3. This seemed the most logical time: the Americans would be at religious services, and waiting until night would only serve to make the escape that much more treacherous. By noon on Saturday, July 2, the fleet had a full head of steam and had fallen into position for the breakout. On Sunday July 3, aboard his flagship Infanta Maria Teresa, Cervera led the Spanish fleet out of the safety of Santiago harbor at 7 minute intervals.

The American forces in Cuban waters were initially divided between 2 commands: Rear Adm. William Sampson of the North Atlantic Squadron and Commodore Winfield Scott Schley, commanding the "Flying Squadron". At the head of the fleet were Sampson’s New York and Schley’s Brooklyn. Although only armored cruisers, they were well-armed for their class. The primary firepower of the American fleet resided in its battleships Indiana, Massachusetts, Iowa, and Texas, all built within the decade. The oldest and least powerful of these was Texas, a near-sister to the famous Maine that exploded in Havana Harbor in February (see posting). These ships were armed with thirteen inch guns and could steam at speeds up to 17 knots. Off Santiago, Schley's "Flying Squadron" was merged into the larger fleet under Sampson's overall command. To bolster this force, Secretary of the Navy John Long ordered the battleship Oregon to sail from California to join the fleet in the Caribbean. The "West coast's lone battleship" steamed from San Francisco around Cape Horn to Key West to join the rest of Sampson's fleet in early May, a 14,500 mile journey completed in 66 days. The battleships were supported by protected and unprotected cruisers and torpedo boats.

At about 0845 on July 3, just as his ships had slipped their moorings, Sampson, with his flagship and the torpedo boat Ericsson, had left their position for a trip to Siboney and a meeting with Maj. Gen. William Shafter, the ground force commander. This opened a gap in the western portion of the American blockade line, leaving a window for Cervera. Sampson's New York was 1 of only 2 ships in the squadron fast enough to catch Cervera if he managed to break through. Further, the Massachusetts, and the cruisers Newark and New Orleans had left that morning to coal at Guantanamo Bay. With the departure of Sampson, who had signaled "Disregard movements of flagship," immediate command devolved to Commodore Schley. Thus, the American blockade formation that morning consisted of Schley's Brooklyn, followed by the Texas, Oregon, Iowa and Indiana and armed yachts Vixen and Gloucester. At 0935, the navigator of Brooklyn sighted a plume of smoke coming from the mouth of the port and reported to Schley, “The enemy's ships are coming out!”

In the lead was Cervera's flagship Infanta Maria Teresa, followed by Vizcaya, Cristóbal Colón, Almirante Oquendo, at 8-10 knots and 800 yards apart, followed by the torpedo-boat destroyers.: They then formed 3 echelons, the destroyers heading east, followed by Colon and Oquendo while Maria Teresa and Vizcaya made for the Brooklyn to cover the escape, which was slowed by fouled bottoms and inferior coal.

Initially, the American response was hampered by some confusion that caused some of the battleships to mask each others fire. Superior weight of metal soon began to tell, however. Iowa opened fire on Oquendo, ultimately causing a boiler explosion that forced the crew to scuttle. The Spanish destroyers were put out of action by fire from Iowa, Indiana, and the returning New York, with 1 sinking and the other running aground before exploding.

At the head of the line, Brooklyn engaged Vizcaya in an hour-long duel at 1200 yards. Despite firing over 300 rounds, Vizcaya failed to inflict significant damage. Subsequent studies have suggested that as much as 85% of Spanish ammunition may have been defective. In response, Brooklyn bludgeoned Vizcaya and was joined by Texas. Moving closer, Brooklyn struck Vizcaya with an 8" shell that caused an explosion setting the ship on fire. Turning for shore, Vizcaya ran aground where the ship continued to burn. Infatna Maria Teresa was also forced to beach, her colors struck and magazines flooded to prevent an explosion.

After more than an hour's fighting, Schley's fleet had destroyed all but one of Cervera's ships. The survivor, Cristobal Colón, continued fleeing along the coast. Slowed due to engine trouble, Brooklyn was unable to catch the retreating cruiser. This allowed the Oregon to move forward. Following an hour-long chase Oregonopened fire and forced Colón to run aground. The American ships now turned to rescuing as many survivors as possible. This led to some tension as Cuban guerrillas were killing any Spanish sailor who made it to shore. American officers had to threaten to use force to halt this practice. Cervera was pulled from the wreck of his flagship and brought aboard the Iowa, where he formally surrendered.

The Spanish fleet in the Caribbean was completely destroyed. The Spanish lost more than 300 killed and 150 wounded, about 22% casualties. The Americans lost only 1 killed and 1 wounded.

Although the Americans had won an easy victory, a bitter dispute arose between the respective supporters of Schley and Sampson as to who was entitled to the credit. Fanned by the popular press, the issue split the US Navy to the point where morale was seriously affected. Matters came to a head with the publication of a book violently attacking Schley’s conduct. He responded with a demand for a Court of Inquiry. This sat for 40 days at the Washington Navy Yard, presided over by Admiral Dewey, as the lawyers refought the campaign in minute detail. In the end, the verdict went against Schley, though this was offset by a minority opinion from Dewey that as Schley had been in effective command, he deserved credit for the victory.

[Ennath]

July 4, 1879
Battle of Ulundi

By April 1879, the Zulus appeared to have thrown the British back to their starting point. But the battles of Khambula and Gingindlovu (see postings) inflicted heavy casualties on the Zulus that could not be replaced. Reacting to the horror of Isandhlwana (see posting), the British government sent out more reinforcements than could effectively be used. Natal was awash with British major generals. Sir Garnet Wolseley and his “Ashanti Ring” were on their way to displace Lord Chelmsford in command. Chelmsford was ordered by Her Majesty's Government to "...submit and subordinate your plans to his control." Chelmsford ignored this and various peace offers from Zulu King Cetshwayo in order to strike while the Zulus were still recovering from their defeats and to attempt to regain his reputation before Wolseley could remove him from command.

Chelmsford's overall strength was 25,000. However, the very size of the force overwhelmed the supply and transport capacity of Natal and Chelmsford would have to utilize a number of troops that could be sustained in the field. In the event, he fielded 2 cavalry regiments, 5 batteries of artillery and 12 infantry battalions, amounting to 1000 regular cavalry, 9000 regular infantry and a further 7000 men with 24 guns, including the first Gatling battery to take the field for the British army. The lumbering supply train consisted of 600 wagons, 8000 oxen and 1000 mules. The structure of the force was reorganized; Col. Evelyn Wood’s No. 4 column became the flying column, Col. Charles Pearson was replaced by Maj. Gen. Henry Crealock and his No.1 column became 1st Division and Maj. Gen. Newdigate was given command of the new 2nd Division, accompanied by Lord Chelmsford himself. The Zulus could maintain 24,000 dispirited warriors.

Eventually, on June 3, the second invasion began its slow advance on Ulundi, the Zulu royal kraal. 1st Division was to advance along the coast belt supporting 2nd Division, which with Wood's flying column, was to march on Ulundi from Rorke’s Drift and Khambula. Still hoping for an end to hostilities, Cetshwayo refrained from attacking the extended and vulnerable supply lines, consequently the British advance was unopposed. As the force advanced Cetshwayo dispatched envoys to the British. These reached Chelmsford on June 4 with the message that Cetshwayo wished to know what terms would be acceptable. Chelmsford sent a Zulu-speaking Dutch trader back with their terms in writing. They returned on the 23rd, but the offer made by the Zulus was rejected as insufficient.

On the 17th a depot named 'Fort Marshall' was established - not far from Isandlhwana. On June 28 Chelmsford’s column was 17 miles from Ulundi and had established the supply depots of Fort Newdigate, Fort Napoleon and Port Durnford when Wolseley arrived in Cape Town. Wolseley had cabled Chelmsford on the 23rd ordering him not to undertake any serious actions, but the message was only received through a galloper on this day. Chelmsford had no intention of letting Wolseley stop him making a last effort to restore his reputation and did not reply. A second message was sent on June 30, reading, "Concentrate your force immediately and keep it concentrated. Undertake no serious operations with detached bodies of troops. Acknowledge receipt of this message at once and flash back your latest moves. I am astonished at not hearing from you" Wolseley, straining to assert command, tried to join 1st Division, lagging along the coast behind the main advance. High seas prevented Wolseley landing at Port Durnford and he had to take the road. At the very time Wolseley was riding north from Durban, Chelmsford was preparing to engage the enemy.

On July 3, with negotiations having broken down, Col. Redvers Buller led a cavalry force across the river to reconnoiter the ground. A party of Zulus was seen herding goats near the Mbilane stream and troopers moved to round the beasts up. On a hunch, Buller bellowed an order for them to stop and prepare to fire from the saddle. His instinct proved right, as 3000 Zulus rose from the long grass at that moment and fired a volley, before charging. 3 troopers were killed and Buller ordered his men to retire. As they dashed back to the river, Baker’s Horse, who had been scouting further across, gave covering fire. Their crossing in turn was covered by the Transvaal Rangers on the opposite bank. Chelmsford was now convinced the Zulus wanted to fight and replied to Wolseley’s 3rd message, informing him that he would be attacking the Zulus the next day.

That evening Chelmsford issued his orders. The British, having learned their lessons in fighting Zulus, would take no chances of a fight in line. Their advance would begin at first light, prior to forming his infantry into square, with mounted troops covering the sides and rear. Neither wagon laagers nor trenches would be used, to convince both the Zulus and critics that a British square could “beat them fairly in the open”.

At 6 AM. Buller led out an advance guard of mounted troops and South African irregulars, and secured an upper drift (river crossing). He was followed by the infantry, led by the experienced Flying Column battalions. By 7:30. the column had cleared the rough ground on the other side of the riverbank and their square (in reality a rectangle) was formed. At 8:45.the Zulus engaged the cavalry on the right and left which slowly retired and passed into the square. The leading face was made up of 5 companies of the 80th Regiment, with 2 Gatlings, 2 9-pounders and 2 7-pounders. The 90th Light Infantry with 4 companies of the 94th Regiment made up the left face with 2 more 7-pounders. On the right face were the 1st Battalion of the 13th Light Infantry, 4 companies of the 58th Regiment, 2 7-pounders and 2 9-pounders. The rear face was composed of 2 companies of the 94th Regiment, 2 companies of the 2nd/21st Regiment (Royal Scots Fusiliers). Within the square were headquarters staff, No. 5 Company Royal Engineers led by Lt. Chard, the 2nd Natal Native Contingent, 50 wagons and carts with reserve ammunition and hospital wagons. Buller’s horsemen protected the front and both flanks. A rearguard of two squadrons of the 17th Lancers and a troop of Natal Native Horse followed. The square began its measured advance across the plain.

No Zulus in any numbers had been sighted by 8:00, so the Frontier Light Horse were sent out to provoke them. As they rode across the Mbilane stream, the entire Zulu inGobamkhosi regiment rose out of the grass in front of them, followed by regiment after regiment rising up all around them. The Zulu Army under the command of umNtwana Ziwedu kaMpande, 12-15,000 strong, now stood in a horseshoe shape encircling the north, east and southern sides of the square. A Zulu reserve force was also poised to complete the circle. The Zulu ranks hammered the ground with their feet and drummed their shields with their assegais. The mounted troops by the stream opened fire from the saddle in an attempt to trigger a premature charge before wheeling back to gallop through the gaps made in the infantry lines for them. As the cavalry cleared their front at about 9:00, the infantry opened fire at 2000 yards into the advancing Zulu ranks. As the range closed, the Gatlings joined in, along with canister fire from the artillery.

The Zulus made several charges. The British took some casualties from Zulu marksmen, but no charge made it to within 30 yards of the British ranks. The Zulu reserve now rose and charged against the southwest corner of the square. The 9-pounders tore great chunks out of this force while the infantry opened fire. The speed of the charge made it seem as if the Zulu reserves would get close enough to engage in hand-to-hand combat, but this charge, too, failed. Sensing that the Zulus were faltering Chelmsford ordered the cavalry to mount, and the 17th Lancers, 1st King’s Dragoon Guards, colonial cavalry, and 2nd Natal Native Contingent charged the now fleeing Zulus. The Lancers were checked at the Mbilane stream by the fire of a concealed party of Zulus, causing several casualties . The pursuit continued until not a live Zulu remained on the Mahlabatini plain, with members of the Natal Native Horse, Natal Native Contingent and Wood's Irregulars slaughtering the wounded, in revenge for Isandhlwana.

Zulu military power was broken. British casualties were 10 killed and 87 wounded, while nearly 500 Zulu dead were counted around the square; another 1000 or more were wounded. Chelmsford ordered the royal kraal to be burnt. Chelmsford turned over command to Wolseley on July 15 at the fort at St. Paul's, leaving for home on the 17th. Chelmsford had partially salvaged his reputation and received a KGCB, largely because of Ulundi; however, he was severely criticized by the Horse Guards investigation and would never serve in the field again.

Cetshwayo fled. British forces were dispersed around Zululand in the hunt for him, burning numerous kraals in a vain attempt to get his subjects to give him up and mopping up remaining resistance. He was finally captured on August 28 at a kraal in the middle of the Ngome forest, and was exiled to London, where he would be held prisoner for 3 years. Wolseley divided Zululand into 13 districts, installing compliant chiefs in each so that the kingdom could no longer unite under one ruler. Cetshwayo was restored to the throne of the partitioned Zulu kingdom in January 1883 shortly before his death in 1884 (see posting, Zulu Civil War).

[Ennath]

924 BC
Egyptian Invasion of Israel

The reign of King Solomon marked the apogee of the Kingdom of Israel, but his achievements strained the nation’s economy to the limit. Popular discontent grew. When he died in 931 BC, representatives met at Shechem to confirm his son Rehoboam as king. There they made their allegiance conditional on a lightening of the burden. This demand came at an inopportune time; external pressure was mounting and both the Egyptians and Damascenes were encroaching on the short-lived trade monopolies Solomon had established in the Red Sea and Syrian desert. Rehoboam disregarded advice to appease the people and informed them that no relief could be expected. The result was the division of the kingdom as the northern tribes seceded, retaining the name of Israel, leaving the southern portion to Solomon’s line as the Kingdom of Judah.

One of the instigators of the split was Pharaoh Sheshonk I. After the assassination of Ramses III “the Great”, Egypt split into northern and southern domains. The priests of Amon gained control of the south, and the north was unable to resist waves of Libyan immigration that augmented the Libyans and Sea Peoples allowed to settle earlier in return for military service. In 946 BC, Sheshonk, a Libyan chieftain, made himself pharaoh over the whole of the north. The next 3 dynasties were all of Libyan descent but largely Egyptian in culture. They were unable to gain control over southern Egypt, which was under the influence of the Kushite rulers of Nubia. Sheshonk was too weak to challenge Solomon’s United Monarchy openly, so he set about subverting it from within. Having sheltered a fugitive prince named Jeroboam for just this purpose, Sheshonk dispatched him to Israel prior to the investiture of Rehoboam and, with the connivance of his agents, put his client forward as candidate for the crown of Israel, to which he was duly elected.

Biding his time, for the ensuing internecine struggle between Israel and Judah to weaken both kingdoms, Sheshonk finally launched a major campaign in 924 BC, with all the forces he could muster. The aim was not the annexation of the region, which he seems to have judged as still beyond his capability, but to seriously weaken the dangerous neighbor to the north. A strong and united Israel was a check to Egypt’s reborn desire for political and economic expansion northwards. Worse was the alliance between Israel and the Phoenician city-state of Tyre, which had successfully challenged Egypt’s naval exclusivity and trade in the Red Sea and badly damaged the Egyptian economy.

Sheshonk’s invasion force was built around a striking force of 1200 chariots. The core of the infantry was comprised on relatively lightly armed Libyans and Nubian mercenaries, mostly archers. These were supplemented by native Egyptian troops, who were present in smaller numbers, demoralized by conquest, and not greatly trusted by the new rulers. The names of localities captured during the campaign have been preserved in a list inscribed on the south entrance to the sanctuary of Amon at Karnak. From these, we can posit 2 Egyptian task forces, or possibly 2 phases of action by a united invasion army.

Force 1 (or the 1st phase) was directed at battering the network of trade posts and stations in the Negev between Etzion-geber and the Mediterranean. Archeological evidence exists for the destruction of Etzion-geber fortress. Force 2 (or phase 2) consisted of an attack to ravage as much of the Israelite kingdom and its war potential as possible. The naturally more difficult (and easier to defend) terrain of the Judean highlands made Sheshonk content himself with a heavy tribute from Rehoboam of Judah and launch his major offensive against his former protégé Jeroboam. Hoping to weaken Israel’s hold in Trans-Jordan as well, the pharaoh crossed the Jordan and ravaged the important trade region.

The Egyptians retreated as swiftly as they came and left a much weakened Israel behind. However, recovery was quicker than the Egyptian ruler anticipated. Unfortunately for Israel and Judah, however, both kingdoms continued to waste considerable effort on armed contests with each other.

[Ennath]

July 5, 1643
Battle of Lansdown Hill

The defeat of the Earl of Stamford at the battle of Stratton (see posting) left Parliament with no field army in Devon or Cornwall. Sir Ralph Hopton sent detachments to blockade Parliamentarian garrisons at Plymouth and Exeter then marched east with the Cornish army to rendezvous with the Marquis of Hertford and Prince Maurice who had marched from Oxford. The two armies joined forces at Chard in Somerset on June 4, 1643.

Despite his lack of military experience, Hertford was the overall commander of the combined Royalist army, but Hopton acted as field marshal and Prince Maurice commanded the cavalry. The strength of the Royalist force was 4000 foot, 2000 horse, 300 dragoons and 16 field guns. There was suspicion and occasional brawling between Hopton's Cornish veterans and the Oxford cavalry. Hopton himself was critical of Maurice's lax discipline over the cavaliers and of their propensity to plunder. During early June, the Royalists secured Somerset by establishing garrisons at Taunton, Bridgwater, Dunster Castle and Wells then advanced with the main army against Parliament's Western Association forces, commanded by Sir William Waller.

Following his failure to penetrate into Wales, Waller consolidated his position at Gloucester. In late May, he advanced on Worcester but his initial attack was driven off and he withdrew upon receiving reports that troops were marching westwards from Oxford. With Hopton also advancing from the southwest, Waller concentrated Parliament's Western Association army around Bath, arriving on June 8. During the following days, he sent 8 troops of horse and a regiment of dragoons to cover the retreat of Sir Edward Popham from the vicinity of Taunton. Popham was threatened by a pursuing force of cavaliers commanded by Prince Maurice. On June 12, Popham's rearguard was scattered at Chewton Mendip by Royalist cavalry under Lord Carnarvon. Parliamentarian reinforcements arrived in time to drive the Royalists back beyond Chewton, only to come under attack themselves when they ran into Maurice's main force. The Prince led a charge that routed half the Parliamentarians before they had time to array themselves, but the remaining troops wheeled around and attacked the Royalist rear. During the mêlée, Prince Maurice was wounded and taken prisoner, but he was rescued towards evening by Carnarvon's cavalry after several determined charges.

During June, Waller gathered all available Parliamentarian forces at Bath. He was joined by cavalry that had been part of the Earl of Stamford's army in Devon, and also by Sir Arthur Hesilrige's newly-raised regiment of cuirassiers that became known as the Lobsters. Although Waller mustered around 2500 horse and dragoons, he remained short of infantry. He requested reinforcements from the Parliamentarian garrison at Bristol, but Col. Fiennes sent only 500 men. By early July, Waller could muster no more than 1500 foot.

Towards the end of June, Hertford's Royalist army advanced to Frome. Despite harassing raids by Waller's cavalry, they entered Bradford-upon-Avon on July 2. The bridge across the Avon gave Hertford a clear march to Oxford and the option to approach Bath either from the south or by skirting around to attack from the north. Waller countered by arraying his army on Claverton Down, 2 miles east of Bath. Col. Robert Burghill was sent with a body of horse and dragoons over a ford near Claverton House where the Parliamentarians had built a defensive redoubt. Early in the morning of July 3, Burghill attacked Royalist outposts on the eastern side of the Avon. Hopton marched with a detachment of Cornish foot to drive back the Parliamentarians. After fierce skirmishing at Monckton Farleigh, Burghill made a fighting withdrawal to the fortified crossing-point at Claverton House. The Parliamentarians defended the crossing for the rest of the day, then withdrew to Waller's main camp when darkness fell. The Royalist commanders agreed to continue their turning movement in the hope of securing high ground to the north of Bath, thus interposing their forces between Waller's army and Bristol. Waller was also aware of this possibility and withdrew into Bath before marching out on July 4 to occupy the high ground for himself.

Waller took up a commanding position on the top of Lansdown Hill, 5 miles north of Bath. The Parliamentarians built breastworks of earth and stone to protect their musketeers and artillery. Each flank was covered by thick woods where more musketeers were posted. The Royalists approached on the morning of July 5 and, after some initial skirmishing, established themselves on Freezing Hill, immediately to the north of the Parliamentarians on Lansdown. The armies faced each other for 2 hours, with occasional skirmishing and cavalry probes. Realizing that Waller had no intention of abandoning his impregnable position, the Royalists began to withdraw towards the nearby village of Marshfield.

As the Royalist army began to move off, Waller sent a large force of horse and dragoons to attack its flank and rear. The dragoons advanced under cover of hedgerows until they were within musket range. Sudden volleys caused panic amongst the Royalist cavalry, who recoiled in disorder, ploughing through the Cornish musketeers who had been posted to cover the withdrawal. However, the Cornishmen held their ground and succeeded in holding off the Parliamentarian attack until Lord Carnarvon's cavalry came up to support them.

Seeing that his troops had gained a tactical advantage, Hopton seized the initiative and ordered a frontal assault on the main Parliamentarian position on Lansdown Hill, supported by flanking attacks on the east and west slopes. The infantry advanced under cover of the woods and hedges, with the Cornish pikemen under the command of Sir Bevil Grenville spearheading the attack. The assault faltered when the Royalists reached the top of the hill and were exposed to the full force of musket and artillery fire from the Parliamentarian breastworks. Grenville formed the pikemen into a defensive stance and succeeded in holding off 3 counter-attacks by Heselrige's cuirassiers. During the 3rd charge, Grenville himself was grievously wounded by a halberd blow to the head.

Unable to dislodge the Royalists and outflanked by the musketeers in the woods, Waller ordered a withdrawal of 400 yards to the shelter of a stone wall that ran laterally across the level ground on the hilltop. The Parliamentarians set up their guns and made loopholes in the wall to defend the new position. The Royalists had also succeeded in hauling artillery up to the hilltop; they took cover behind the breastworks that the Parliamentarians had just abandoned. By this time, darkness was falling. Both sides were exhausted and no further fighting took place after nightfall. The Royalist position near the edge of the slope was precarious, but Waller regarded his own position as equally hopeless. Under cover of darkness, he ordered the Parliamentarian army to withdraw to Bath, leaving lighted match and stands of pike to simulate a watchful army.

The Royalists were left in possession of the field, but their casualties were heavy with around 250 killed and many more wounded. Parliamentarian losses were lighter, with 20 dead and 60 wounded. Grenville died of his wounds, which was a heavy blow to the morale of the Cornish infantry. A further setback occurred on the day after the battle: Sir Ralph Hopton was seriously injured when an ammunition wagon was blown up by a stray spark from a lighted match, leaving him badly burned and temporarily blinded and paralyzed. The Royalists were temporarily demoralized by the setback, but would go on the win a convincing victory on July 13 at Roundway Down (see posting).