The First World War

[knobby109]

Originally Posted by Ennath

July 26, 1914
[/B] The government presents a choice to the striking munitions workers – return to work by the 29th or military service.

Munitions workers of military age were exempted from the call up. Churchill told them that if they didn't want to keep making munitions, fine, just accept that makes you liable for active service. It did the trick.

[Ennath]

July 27, 1900
Germany Reviewing a force of troops being sent to China to fight the Boxers, the Kaiser declares in a speech, “Even as, a thousand years ago, the Huns under their King Attila made such a name for themselves as still resounds in legend and fable, so may the name of Germans resound through Chinese history a thousand years from now.” His foreign minister calls it privately, “the worst speech I have ever heard.” It is possibly the source for the nickname of “Huns” for Germans that emerges during World War I.

July 27, 1914
Diplomatic Relations The Tsar informs Serbia that Russia cannot be indifferent to its fate and proposes to Vienna direct talks. Austria-Hungary declares that it is too late for talks or mediation and that it cannot submit a matter of national honor to international discussion.
Germany responds to Grey’s request for a conference, saying that they have taken steps to mediate the situation. They have not.
Once mobilizations begin, steps in the direction of war take on an increasing life of their own. Each country’s mobilization is tied to a strict timetable and none wants to be unprepared in the event of hostilities.
Germany There is a panic on the Berlin stock exchange.
France Poincaré decides to cut short his state visits to Scandinavia and return home immediately. There are anti-war demonstrations by the Socialists in Paris.

July 27, 1915
Western Front The Germans bombard Soissons and Rheims.
France The Chamber of Deputies agrees to the necessity for Parliamentary control of the army.
Eastern Front The Germans take Gorowowo, east of Rozhan. Warsaw is attacked on three sides. A Russian attack in the Kholm region inflicts heavy casualties on the Austrians.
Italian Front The Austrians fail to retake Monte Sei Busi.
Caucasus The Turks force the Russians back near Mush.

July 27, 1916
Western Front, Somme There are fresh British gains at Delville Wood. Fighting continues at Longueval. The French progress east of Estrees. Unreinforced, exhausted, undersupplied, and outgunned, the local Germans begin surrendering in larger numbers than usual.
Western Front, Elsewhere German attacks in the Aisne and Champagne sectors cause some loss.
Eastern Front The Russians are five miles from Brody.
Caucasus The Russians attack toward Sivas.
Arabia Yanbo, the port of Medina, falls to Sherifian forces.

July 27, 1917
Western Front The Aisne-Champagne fighting continues.
As the projected date for the opening of Haig’s Flanders offensive approaches, soldiers of the Guards Division, in Gough’s 5th Army, discover that the Germans have evacuated 3000 yards of their front line after British shelling and occupy the abandoned trenches. Gough has an advantage in artillery of nearly 2 to 1. Haig has designated the 5th Army’s 9 divisions as the spearhead of the offensive.
Britain A Labor Party motion to approve the Reichstag’s “Peace Resolution” of July 18 is defeated 148-19.
Serbia The government issues a proposal for a Yugo-Slav federation.
Rumanian Front German troops cross the Sereth and take Kolomea.

July 27, 1919
Finland The country becomes a republic.

[Ennath]

July 28, 1913
Diplomatic Relations Britain and Germany solve the Baghdad Railway dispute. The Germans agree that there will be no spur from Basra to the Persian Gulf.

July 28, 1914
Diplomatic Relations Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia at noon. They declare that they have no quarrel with Russia but flatly refuse any attempt at mediation.
The Austrian declaration catches the Kaiser by surprise; the Germans believed that hostilities would not begin until mobilization was complete. Wilhelm has just put forward a peace plan which calls for occupation of Belgrade as a Serbian pledge for fulfillment of its commitments as well as guarantees of that country’s territorial integrity. He is out of step with his own government.
The Kaiser wires the Tsar that he will use his influence with Austria; in truth the situation is now out of his control. This is the start of the Willy-Nicky telegrams between the two monarchs over the next few days, trying to work out some solution. They write in English.
France informs the Tsar that the “French army is fully ready and active to do her duty as an ally of Russia.”
Central Powers Diplomacy Bethmann-Hollweg telegraphs Berchtold: “Serbia has in fact met the Austrian demands in so wide-sweeping a manner that if the Austro-Hungarian government adopted a wholly uncompromising attitude, a gradual revulsion of public opinion against it in all of Europe would have to be reckoned with.” He may be getting cold feet at this point as it appears that Russia may stand firm. Berchtold ignores the appeal.
Britain The government orders the fleet to proceed to war stations. The main force, the Home Fleet, begins to assemble at its wartime anchorage at Scapa Flow in the Orkneys, whence it can dominate the North Sea and effectively blockade German access to the world’s oceans.
France The Caillaux trial ends with Madame Caillaux’s acquittal. French Socialists again demonstrate against the drift to war.
Germany There are anti-war demonstrations by German Socialists. Bethmann-Hollweg claims to the Kaiser that he was duped by Vienna and offers his resignation. Wilhelm refuses, telling him, “You cooked up this broth, now you are going to eat it.”
Italy Moves begin to concentrate the fleet.

July 28, 1915
Eastern Front The Germans cross the Vistula between Warsaw and Ivangorod. Counterattacks south of Warsaw are repulsed, as are Austrian attacks on the Upper Vistula.
Italian Front A minor Italian offensive in the Venetian Alps is making gains around the Cordevole Valley. Italian troops are forced to evacuate positions on the Carso.
Britain The final debate occurs on compulsory service and Asquith reviews the situation.
Caribbean Due to a rebellion by a group known as cacos, the United States occupies Haiti. The occupation lasts until 1934.
Northern Rhodesia A Belgian relief force fails to break through to Saisi.

July 28, 1916
Western Front, Somme The British clear Delville Wood and Longueval.
Western Front, Verdun The French gain west of Thiaumont.
Western Front, Elsewhere The Germans raid near Neuve Chapelle.
Eastern Front The Russians enter Brody. They have taken 40,000 prisoners and 49 guns in 12 days. Further north, the Russians cross the Upper Stokhod.
German East Africa Belgian troops occupy Kigoma. The gunboat Graf von Goetzen is sunk trying to land troops on the Belgian shore of Lake Tanganyika. She is later raised by the British and repaired.

July 28, 1917
Eastern Front The pursuit in Galicia reaches the Russian frontier. The Germans break through at Zloczow.
British Forces A Tank Corps is authorized.
Rumanian Front The Rumanians continue to advance, but Russian 4th Army does not attack as it is supposed to.

July 28, 1918
Western Front French troops occupy Fere-en-Tardenois. The American “Rainbow Division” (so called because it contains troops from many parts of the country), under Douglas MacArthur, attacks the village of Sergy, which changes hands seven times during the day before finally falling to the Americans.
Allied Planning Following up on his directive of July 24, calling for clearing the railway network surrounding Paris in order to ensure communication and transport between all sectors of the front, Foch has instructed that all attacks to achieve this objective must occur at brief intervals and be unanticipated by the Germans. He awards command of a combined Anglo-French attack near Amiens meant to further his plan to Haig. The attack itself falls to Sir Henry Rawlinson’s 4th Army, positioned east of Amiens, and Marie Debeney’s French 1st Army to the south facing Montdidier. Haig and both field commanders maintain strictest secrecy.
Palestine Major T. E. Lawrence returns to Aqaba after visits with Allenby to discuss the fall offensive.

July 28, 1928
World Affairs The Olympic Games open in Amsterdam. Germany participates for the first time since the war. German athletes win 9 gold medals.

[palo5]

Originally Posted by Ennath

...July 26, 1916
Russia Sukhomlinov is diagnosed with a mental affliction and moved to an asylum...

If they had applied this measure to heads of government in 1914, it would have saved much unnecessary slaughter

[Ennath]

July 29, 1914
Diplomatic Relations Bulgaria proclaims neutrality.
The Germans inform Russia that its partial mobilization will trigger a wider war. This is part of an effort to throw responsibility for the war on Russia, largely for domestic consumption. Since even partial mobilization will mean war, Russia now orders a general mobilization. However, the Tsar changes his mind that evening in an attempt to cool tempers.
Pressed by Germany as to her intentions, Britain declares itself to still be in favor of mediation but warns that it cannot stand aside in all circumstances. Germany proposes that if Britain will guarantee to remain neutral, Germany would annex no French territory. Besides being considered an insulting gesture in Britain, the offer betrays Germany’s possible intention to attack France.
Germany The navy is ordered to mobilize. This includes the High Seas Fleet, the main force, which begins to assemble along the Jade River. The Chancellor is trying to ascertain French responses to a war in the East and to wait for Russian mobilization to make it appear that Germany is only defending itself, not starting a war, but the generals are becoming impatient; their war plan calls for automatic war with France if there is war with Russia. They are not concerned with who began the war, only with who will win it. They begin to take control of events.
Moltke predicts a war “which will annihilate the civilization of almost the whole of Europe for decades to come.” Nevertheless, he sends a demand to the chancellor that mobilization begin immediately.
Russia The Tsar signs the partial mobilization order, to come into effect on August 4. He reaffirms that he has no hostile designs toward Germany. A black-out is ordered on the Baltic coast.
France President Poincaré and Premier Vivani reach Paris.
Serbian Front The first engagement of World War I occurs. Austrian river monitors on the Danube bombard Belgrade, the Serbian capital. Serbian artillery replies. Austro-Hungarian troops make an unsuccessful attempt to cross the river between Belgrade and Gradishte, the first of 18 such vain attempts before August 12.
Adriatic Austrian destroyers almost capture the King of Montenegro’s yacht.
Mediterranean The German Mediterranean Squadron, (battlecruiser Goeben and light cruiser Breslau), in the area since 1912 and under Admiral Souchon, sails for Trieste.

July 29, 1915
Eastern Front The Germans cut the Lublin-Kholm railway.and break through west of the Veprj. German attacks near Narew fail. German 11th Army shifts its attacks northeast, breaking Russian lines and compelling a withdrawal toward Brest-Litovsk.
Adriatic Sea The Austrians attempt to recapture Pelagosa.
Dardanelles The French submarine Mariotte is lost.

July 29, 1916
Western Front, Somme The Germans fail to recapture Delville Wood.
Western Front, Elsewhere There is activity at Ypres and the Loos salient.
Baltic Sea The Allies publish the details of Germany’s Swedish convoys. The Germans clearly benefit from the many small islands providing cover in Swedish coastal (and territorial) waters.
German East Africa Dodoma is occupied by the British.

July 29, 1917
Eastern Front The Russians stand south of the Dniestr, but retreat continues in Bukovina.

July 29, 1918
Western Front Allied troops liberate Grand Rozoy and Buzancy. Near Albert, the Australians take Merris.
Allied Planning Haig presents his goal to his field commanders for the Amiens attack: to push von der Marwitz’s 2nd Army back to a line between Morcourt and Hangest – a modest advance to be followed by pressing the Germans toward Chaulnes.
BritainThe strikers return to work.

[Ennath]

July 30 – August 23, 1903
Russia The Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (S.D.), a union of Marxist groups, holds its 2nd Congress in Brussels and London. There is a split between the Bolsheviks, under Lenin, who favor a small, centralized party of professional revolutionaries, and the Mensheviks, who favor a broader, freer group.

July 30, 1914
Diplomatic Relations The Dutch government declares neutrality.
Russia proposes to Germany to halt mobilization if Austria will drop the clauses in its ultimatum threatening Serbian sovereignty. The Germans do not pass the proposal on to Vienna.
Learning of German mobilization moves, the Tsar again changes his mind and orders general mobilization. His indecision has thrown the Russian mobilization into chaos before operations even begin.
Grey rejects Germany’s proposal of the day before, but still holds out the olive branch. No notice of this is taken by Germany. Bethmann-Hollweg, however, is beginning to have doubts and urges Austria to accept mediation; it is too late. The Germans try to get assurances of British neutrality; these are not forthcoming. The British do not yet declare full support for France.
German Command Prince Heinrich, the Kaiser’s brother and a career naval officer, is named commander of the Baltic Fleet, despite his lack of command experience.
Western Front German troops close up to the French frontier. French troops are kept 10 km away from the border to avoid any incident.
Canada War preparations begin at Halifax.

July 30, 1915
Western Front A German attack at Hooge uses flame-throwers to pierce the British line. The surprised British fall back and the advancing Germans capture the so-called Hooge crater, a great hole 120 feet across and 20 feet deep created by a British mine explosion. Though the Germans have used flamethrowers before, this marks the new weapon’s first real success, owing to the exceptionally short expanse of No-Man’s Land (only fifteen yards) where the attack is focused.
War in the Air 45 French aircraft bomb Freiburg.
Eastern Front The Russians fall back along the entire line, excepting only the lower Bug. Austrian troops occupy Lublin. Fighting at Warsaw continues.
Baltic Sea The German minelayer Aachen is torpedoed by the British submarine E1.
Turkey Successes are reported in the Grsbudo Hills against Armenian rebels. Cholera hits the garrison of Constantinople.
Diplomatic Relations The United States protests the use of fake passports by German spies.
Australia The Federal government proposes a War Tax.

July 30, 1916
Western Front, Somme The combined Allied offensive changes little. The British make progress east of Trones Wood. They gain part of Guillemont, but are driven out again. The French reach the outskirts of Maurepas.
Western Front, Verdun A German attack on the left bank of the Meuse is repulsed.
Eastern Front The Russians maintain the pressure on the retreating Austrians, pushing toward Kovel and Stanislau.
Russia Russian forces defeat Kirghiz rebels at Bedel Pass on the Chinese border.
Italian Front An Austrian attack in the Adige Valley is repulsed. Since the start of the Austrian offensive, the Trentino fighting has resulted in 147,000 Italian and 89,000 Austrian casualties.
Macedonia A Russian contingent arrives at Salonika.
United States German saboteurs blow up the munitions depot at Black Tom Island, Jersey City. The blast shatters windows 25 miles away.

July 30, 1917
Western Front During the night and early morning, Gough’s assault forces assemble at the front lines. Joining them are 136 tanks.
Eastern Front The Germans take Zaleszczycki and Sniatyn.

July 30, 1918
Western Front German resistance stiffens. Remigny is liberated. A German counterattack at St. Euphraise fails.
United States The Onondaga Iroquois declare war on Germany.
Eastern Front Marshal von Eichhorn, the German military ruler of the east, is assassinated in Kiev. So far, the Germans have lost 19,000 men in their conquest of Russia; they leave a trail of retaliatory mass shootings and hangings.

July 30, 1919
Hungary The Rumanian Army crosses the Tisza River at two points and soon envelops Hungarian forces

[Ennath]

July 31, 1905
German East Africa A major native rebellion breaks out. The Maji Maji rebellion lasts until August 1907 and results in at least 200,000 African dead, ending resistance to German rule.

July 31, 1914
Central Powers Planning German chief of staff Helmuth von Moltke informs his Austrian counterpart, Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, that Germany will mobilize its forces. Austria-Hungary announces a general mobilization.
Diplomatic Relations The Germans tell Russia that it must cease all war preparations by noon on August 1, and the French government is requested brusquely to state its position within 18 hours on any conflict between Germany and Russia. If France is to remain neutral, Toul and Verdun are to be temporarily ceded as hostages to French “good behavior”. Premier Viviani replies that France will act according to her interests. French ambassadors throughout Germany are informed by Paris that German actions have caused peace attempts to fail.
Grey asks of France and Germany whether they are prepared to accept Belgian neutrality, as guaranteed by the treaty of 1839. France says “certainly”, Germany refuses to reply.
Vienna informs the Italian government that it has no territorial ambitions.
World Affairs A wave of financial panic, starting in New York, closes the London Stock Exchange.
Germany The government announces a state of “Kriegsgefahrsustand” (imminent danger of war). The Russian mobilization allows the government to present the war to its people as one of national defense against the “Slav menace”. Martial law is proclaimed.
Britain The situation is discussed in Cabinet. Although sympathy is clearly with France, they do not yet feel able to offer any definite pledge of assistance.
Belgium Mobilization is decreed, to begin the following day. The Belgian State Railway suspends trains to Germany.
France Socialist leader Jean Jaures is assassinated in Paris. He has been urging French workers not to “enter any bourgeois war.” The government authorizes a general mobilization.
Interior Minister Louis Malvy refuses to arrest the people named on Carnet B, explaining to the government that the workers might be antagonized by the arrest of their leaders. In fact, he would have had to arrest many associates of his patron, ex-Premier Joseph Caillaux (whose wife was just acquitted of murder), pro-German, anti-British, and an incurable intriguer. (Among those associates is a young Socialist politician named Pierre Laval.) Malvy turns to another Caillaux client, anarchist Miguel Almereyda, publisher of Le Bonnet Rouge, making the journalist his “Ambassador to the Left”, offering a subsidy from ministry funds to ensure that those on the list cause no trouble. As late as 1917, police understand that they are not to take action against prominent politicians agitating against the war.
Turkey Mobilization begins.
Serbian Front An Austrian attack at Semendria is stopped cold.
Mediterranean Admiral Milne, commanding the British Mediterranean Fleet, receives a telegram from the Admiralty warning that war is possible and instructing him, if it should occur, to aid transportation of French troops by engaging German ships in the area, especially the Goeben, that might interfere with the transports. He is advised not to engage “superior forces”.
Baltic SeaRussian ships begin mining the approaches to the Gulf of Finland.

July 31, 1915
Eastern Front The Germans in the Riga sector cross the Aa after two days of fighting. The Germans advance near Kamienka in desperate fighting. Austrian troops eject the Russians from Kurow, near Lublin, which the Russians are evacuating. The Germans occupy Kholm.
Bulgaria The government announces that it has no intention of joining the Central Powers or of attacking Serbia.
Diplomatic Relations Rumania’s King Ferdinand firmly rejects an urgent request by the Kaiser to allow the passage of supplies to Turkey.
Northern Rhodesia The defenders of Saisi reject a German surrender demand and repel an attack in the evening.

July 31, 1916
Eastern Front Russian troops cross the Storopyets.
Italian Front Austrian attacks on Monte Cimone, in the Trentino, fail. The Italians occupy Panneveggio.
German East Africa The British occupy Saranda.

July 31, 1917
Western Front, Ypres The 3rd Battle of Ypres opens. At 3:50 AM, British, Anzac, French, and Belgian troops go over the top. Gough’s 5th Army carries the center of the attack to the east of Ypres along the Ypres-Roulens railway and to the northeast of Ypres, advancing against Sixt von Arnim’s 4th Army and units of Otto von Below’s 6th Army. To the south, Sir Herbert Plumer’s 2nd Army and to the north the French 1st Army support the assault. Along the entire front, the Allies succeed by midday in capturing their initial objectives, German outposts and first line defenses, but in pressing beyond the second line, they confront counterattacks that force them back to their first objectives. The supporting tanks are deterred by cratered terrain and prey to German shelling, as well as mechanical failures. The farthest advance as night approaches is about 3500 yards. During the afternoon, heavy rains begin.
Western Front, Elsewhere The French make a successful attack on the Roye.
Eastern Front The Russians retire around Czernowitz.

July 31, 1918
Western Front After back-and-forth fighting, the Germans abandon Seringes, northeast of Fere-en-Tardenois, to the Americans.
Russia Turkish troops reportedly occupy the heights above Baku, so Colonel Bicherakov has sailed on to Derbent with most of his men, planning to move in behind the Turks from the north.
Persia Part of the brigade sent by General Marshall to defend Baku reaches Qazvin.

July 31, 1919
Britain Plumer and Allenby are promoted to Field Marshal.
Germany Germany adopts a constitution for its new “Weimar Republic”. The new state is opposed by both the far right, which seeks a non-democratic and traditionalist Germany, and the far left, which seeks a Soviet-style state. The new republic is thus unstable from the start.
Russia General Rawlinson arrives to coordinate the Allied withdrawal.

[Ennath]

August 1906
Persia Following a series of protests by the merchant and clerical classes, Shah Mozzafar-ed-Din agrees to the creation of a parliament in the fall.
Russia The Empress and many at Court begin coming under the influence of Rasputin, a disreputable monk who seems able to control the tsarevich’s bleeding.

August 1914
War at Sea The submarine war finds the German fleet with 36 boats available; Austria-Hungary possesses 7 more. U-Boats sink 62,767 tons of Allied shipping. Two U-Boats are lost. With the coming of war, Britain and France order merchant shipping to disperse. Convoys are not used; it is thought that the cruisers that would be tied down in escort duty are better employed in hunting down German warships. Convoys also involve inevitable delays. The exception to this rule is troopships, which are almost always escorted.

August 1915
War at Sea U-Boats sink 185,866 tons of shipping. Two German U-Boats and an Austrian boat are sunk. The Germans are catching on to the Q-Ships. As a result, fewer submarines are stopping their victims as previously, but just torpedoing or shelling them, increasing Q-Ship losses.
Austria-Hungary Hungary is supplying the bulk of the Dual Monarchy’s food and Hungarian landowners are able to force the army, at its own expense, to commit troops to help with the Hungarian harvest. During this summer, up to 500,000 will be so employed. There seems to be an unofficial understanding – the Austrian army can misuse Hungary’s peasants, so long as the Hungarian landlords can misuse Austria’s towns.
Russia The Special Council splits into four groups and the industrialists are left to quarrel among themselves.

August 1916
War at Sea U-Boats sink 162,744 tons of shipping. Two U-Boats are sunk. Some two thirds of this total is in the Mediterranean.
Russian Command The courtly, dilatory old admiral Ebergard is replaced as head of the Black Sea fleet by the aggressive 41-year old Alexander Kolchak.
British Intelligence The British discover the Egyptian police filled with Turkish spies. The network is smashed.
Macedonia Essad Pasha commits Albanian contingents to the Entente forces.
Central Asia The Russians send a punitive expedition into the area to suppress the revolts.

August 1917
War at Sea U-Boats sink 511,730 tons of shipping. Three U-Boats are lost. As the convoys are defeating the U-Boats, there is an increase in attacks on hospital ships, generally sailing fully lit and prominently displaying the red cross on their sides. U-Boats receive priority in naval construction; as a result, several powerful capital ships, some already launched, will never be completed.
Diplomatic Relations The intended grand peace conference at Stockholm never really comes off. All that occurs are visits by isolated delegations at different times. Conflicts between reformist and revolutionary factions inhibit any result. The various governments have nipped the socialist effort at subversion in the bud.
Germany General Groener is abruptly dispatched to command of a division in France. He is replaced by General Heinrich Scheuch, who barely manages an uneasy peace with the trade unions.
British Forces The Zionist movement has formed a battalion known as the Jewish Legion (officially 38th Royal Fusiliers) for British service. A second battalion (39th Royal Fusiliers) is raised in April 1918.

August 1918
War at Sea U-Boats sink 283,815 tons of shipping. Nine U-Boats are sunk.

August 1921
Arabia Ibn Saud besieges the Rashidi capital of Ha’il. It falls on November 1. Only the Hashemites remain to dispute Saudi control of Arabia.

August – November 1921
Austria and Hungary The new republican Austrian army clashes with Hungarian irregulars (increasingly disguised regulars) over the Burgenland on their mutual border. A December plebiscite awards the majority of the area to Austria, though the major city, Sopron, goes to Hungary.

[Ennath]

August 1, 1914
Diplomatic Relations Germany declares war on Russia at 7:10 PM.
Britain protests the detention of British ships in Hamburg.
France is awaiting British support in the war. Ambassador Cambon asks Grey if Britain will intervene.
The outbreak of war is everywhere met with general enthusiasm. Patriotic crowds demonstrate in favor of support for the war effort and throngs of young men crowd the recruiting offices.
Belgium The government announces that it will maintain an armed neutrality in any conflict, according to the Treaty of 1839. Britain and France guarantee support for this.
France Viviani agrees to general mobilization. Delcassé becomes War Minister.
Germany General mobilization begins. The Kaiser plans to halt the move into Luxembourg if France will remain neutral but Moltke informs him that the war plans cannot be altered; war with France is inevitable. The Kaiser proclaims “For my part there are no more political parties; for me there are only Germans.” The Reichstag proclaims a Burgfrieden, a political truce. This will last into 1916.
Norway Coastal fortifications are manned and the navy placed on alert. A full naval mobilization is ordered the following day.
Japan The fleet is readied for war.
Britain The Governor of the Bank of England informs Chancellor David Lloyd George of his opposition to involvement in the war. Others in the financial community also make their feelings known.
Churchill orders that two dreadnoughts built for Turkey at a shipyard on the River Tyne be commandeered for the Royal Navy – an act that outrages the Turks, who had raised money by public subscription to pay for the ships.
German Forces Germany has the best equipped and trained army on the continent. Fifty percent of military age youths are conscripted and remain in reserve service afterward. These reserves are also well-trained. The German Army has a preponderance of available medium and heavy artillery. Behind all this is a well-knit industrial organization. Despite an offensive doctrine, the troops are also trained in defensive tactics.
The German fleet is comparable in efficiency to the Royal Navy but has only 18 dreadnought battleships and battlecruisers, 2/3 the British total. They also have a shortage of bases on the North Sea. Training and equipment are good. The ships are well armored and underwater protection is especially good. Mines are excellent. The only real problem is the social gulf between officers and men, which will eventually become a yawning chasm.
German Plans The German plan was prepared years before by Count Alfred von Schlieffen. After the Russo-French alliance, he was acutely aware of the dangers of a two-front war. Viewing France as the more dangerous enemy, he intended to knock the French out of the war in a matter of weeks, before Russia could effectively mobilize her vast armies.
Schlieffen realized that the French border defenses with Germany were far too strong to be taken quickly and that rapid movement through Switzerland’s mountains was impossible. He therefore opted to violate Belgian and Dutch neutrality by sending a massive force, some 90% of the total German army, through the Low Countries and then swing southward and head for Paris. The French would be flanked and attacked from the rear and rolled up. Only 5% of the German army would defend Alsace-Lorraine, aided by 12 Italian divisions provided under the terms of the Triple Alliance. These, along with strong border defenses, were hoped to be sufficient to halt the expected French offensive. The remaining forces would hold East Prussia, delaying the Russians until German forces, fresh from their victory over France, could be rushed east to defeat Russia in turn. Rapid mobilization and rapid rail movement of troops were key to the plan.
Schlieffen retired in 1906 and his successor Helmuth von Moltke modified the original plan. Moltke saw that Russia could mobilize more quickly than Schlieffen realized and so earmarked 15% of the army for defense of East Prussia. He also realized that Italian participation in the defense of Alsace-Lorraine was uncertain at best and so increased forces there to 25% of German strength. This left 60% of German strength in the right wing. Moltke also decided not to attack through the Netherlands, believing that Britain might not go to war over Belgium if Dutch neutrality was respected. Consequently, the planned attack has to take place on a narrower front than that originally envisaged. It also forces the Germans to neutralize the massive fortress defenses of Liege, which stand directly in their path.
Many historians have condemned Moltke for this “weakening”, but in fact, new German conscription laws in the meantime had added significant manpower to the German Army and it was this that was allocated to the other fronts. The right wing is actually slightly stronger, in terms of numbers, than envisaged by Schlieffen. Neutral Holland provides some outlet for supplies to reach Germany through the British blockade. Finally, the plan was inherently unworkable. It would have been fine if German soldiers were automatons instead of fallible human beings, but this is not the case. Finally, the plan committed Germany irrevocably to a two-front war should the initial thrusts fail. The plan’s greatest flaw, though, is its lack of any idea of what to do if it doesn’t work and Germany is faced with a long war.
At sea the Germans intend to compensate for their numerical inferiority by wearing the British fleet down with mines, torpedoes, and light forces, then, when the odds have been more evened, engaging the main British fleet. Unfortunately, the British do not engage in the close blockade necessary for this to be effective, so the navy basically enters the war without a plan. Forces abroad are to engage in commerce raiding.
French Forces The French Army ranks second in continental Europe to the German in general efficiency, with the exception of the emphasis on the offensive, discussed below. With a smaller population than Germany, the French call some 80 percent of military age youth to service; their reserves, however, are not particularly well-trained and are intended for internal security rather than serious combat. The French possess the finest field gun of its time – the Model 1897 75mm gun, the prototype of 20th century artillery. However, secure in the knowledge that the weapon surpasses anything possessed by their opponents, the French have neglected medium and heavy artillery. There are only some 300 of these larger guns to oppose 3500 German.
The navy has been hampered in pre-war years by politically-motivated building programs. Strong in light forces, though many of these are outdated, the first dreadnoughts are just now entering service and the pre-dreadnoughts are a hodge-podge of experimental types. Training is fairly good, but the ships suffer from use of unstable powder, a defect not solved until late in the war.
French Plans France’s greatest humiliation in 1871 was the loss of Alsace-Lorraine and the main thrust of its strategy ever since was the recovery of the lost provinces. France’s Plan XVII, developed by Chief of Staff, General Joseph Joffre, calls for French armies to assemble along the frontier from Switzerland to Belgium and launch an immediate, devastating attack in strength into Alsace-Lorraine. Joffre does recognize that Germany might violate Belgian neutrality but underestimates the readiness of German territorial troops and assumes that any German move through Belgium can not advance past the Meuse without becoming dangerously overextended. Nevertheless, two French armies are to be prepared to shift westward in such an eventuality.
Plan XVII has two key weaknesses. First, Joffre underestimates the quality of the German reserves and the speed with which the Germans can mobilize and move. This allows the Germans to have a much greater front-line strength in the initial campaigns than the French and permits a movement through Belgium that would not leave them particularly overstretched.
The second weakness of the plans is the French adherence to the doctrine of offensive a outrance, all-out attack. They believe that a resolute attack could fight through any defense. All that is needed is the willpower of the ordinary French soldier. Consequently, French training concentrated on attack and neglected defense. For their part, the Germans trained to both attack and defend aggressively – and their infantry were equipped with a greater proportion of machine guns. As the French would learn in the coming weeks, resolute attacks in the face of modern firepower could result in very heavy casualties.
Naval plans call for the fleet, based mainly in the Mediterranean to protect the transfer of the North African army to France, then to seek out and destroy the Austrian and, if necessary, Italian fleets. The Adriatic is to be blockaded.
Austro-Hungarian Forces The Hapsburg Empire’s army is patterned on the German, but a poor general staff and the language barrier – 75% of the officers are of Germanic origin, while only some 25% of the enlisted men understand the language – are handicaps. The greatest obstacle is the poor morale of many of its discontented Slavic and Italian minorities, with little loyalty to the dynasty.
The fleet has recently been transformed from a purely coastal force to a blue-water navy by the addition of four dreadnoughts. Supporting forces are few and antiquated and the language problems are at least as bad as in the army.
Austro-Hungarian Plans General Conrad von Hötzendorf is a man of bold visions, almost all well beyond the capabilities of his army to implement. He has evolved two plans, Plan B for war against Serbia alone and Plan R for war against both Serbia and Russia. He chooses the former, then changes his mind as events unfold. As a result, one of his six armies will not be available for action on either front when he begins his offensives. Even then, it is doubtful that Austria would have sufficient superiority of force to justify two simultaneous offensives.
The fleet, under Admiral Haus, is to protect the Dalmatian coasts.
Russian Forces The Russian Army, strong in docile, hardy, and fatalistically brave manpower, suffers from severe shortages in materiel. There is too much emphasis still placed on cavalry, straining the supply system. Its high command, with few exceptions, is careless and incompetent, as is the general staff. In addition, the officer corps is divided over the person of Vladimir Sukhomlinov, minister of war since 1909, who stresses infantry and field artillery and is backed by a group of officers of mostly middle or lower class origin and lavish with patronage. He is opposed by a clique of cavalry and fortress officers, mostly upper class and the two factions detest each other.
The fleet is still recovering from the Russo-Japanese War. Several dreadnoughts are under construction, but not yet ready. Social tensions are commonplace, but the Russians have a tradition of adapting and making do.
Russian Plans Russia’s strategic position is poor since Poland juts out in a bulge, inviting envelopment; the Russians plan to temporarily abandon territory west of the Vistula. Offensive plans call for immediate, simultaneous offensives against both Germany and Austria-Hungary, despite the fact that mobilization will not be complete for three months. Action is to be speeded even further by French pleas for help in the opening weeks. The Russian army is not strong enough to attack both foes and railways are too poor to permit rapid movement of troops from one front to the other. The Austrians are the weaker enemy, but a defeat of Austria will not affect the war in the west.
Naval plans call for an aggressive mining campaign along enemy coasts.
British Forces and Plans In contrast to the continental forces, the British Regular Army is a volunteer force. Under qualified career officers, its morale, discipline, and steadiness are high; individual marksmanship and fire discipline are excellent. The original British Expeditionary Force will play a role in the opening campaign far beyond that indicated by its strength. Behind the regulars is the Territorial Army, a volunteer militia. The BEF is to be at full strength within 21 days and fall in on the left of the French armies.
The Royal Navy, with 28 dreadnought battleships and battlecruisers, is the most powerful fleet in the world and is ready for action. Although largely transformed into a modern force, problems remain. The fire control system and propellant are inferior and too many shells are duds. Only 8 battleships yet have director firing. Bases date mainly from the days when France was the enemy and east coast bases on the North Sea are still being developed. Nevertheless, the spirit and élan of a mature, confident force will carry them far. Plans call for protection of the transfer of the BEF to France, then seeking and destroying the German fleet. Germany is to be blockaded and British commerce protected. The old tradition of close blockade is abandoned due to the threats of mines and submarines; a distant blockade is employed instead.
Belgian Forces and Plans Belgium has 117,000 troops in the field army once mobilized and another 67,000 fortress troops. Equipment is generally obsolete. The plan is to delay the German advance and concentrate on the defense of Antwerp to maintain links to the outside world.
Serbian Forces and Plans Once mobilized, the Serbs would have ten divisions concentrated around Belgrade. The only plan is to react to Austrian moves. Opportunities for offensive action are to be seized. These are good, battle-tested troops under tried commanders, but with little modern, heavy equipment.
War in the Air Both sides possess both airships and airplanes, but these are intended for scouting and reconnaissance only. Airplanes in particular are fragile and short-ranged machines as the war begins.
The German air service has almost 200 aircraft with good pilots, but the emphasis is on airships. There are fourteen of these. The French air service is the largest in the world, nearly 250 airplanes. These are some of the most advanced designs in the world, with well-trained pilots. The British air service and naval air service have some 200 aircraft. These are good designs with good pilots. No other country yet possesses much of an air force.

[Ennath]

August 1, 1915
Western Front The British retake some trenches at Hooge.
War in the Air French Voisins with machine guns have dominated the skies over the Western Front and have bombed and strafed in Germany with virtual impunity, but a dramatic change occurs as Lt. Max Immelmann, flying a Fokker E-I monoplane, forces down a British Be-2c observation plane at Douai. Eleven German pilots have taken to the air in these new planes, designed by Dutchman Anthony Fokker, and employing interrupter gear to enable forward fire through the propeller arc. With the new plane, the Germans can contest control of the air. The “Fokker Scourge” has arrived.
Eastern Front The Russians evacuate Mitau, which is occupied by the Germans. The Germans are held on the Blonie line, west of Warsaw, but gain along the Narew. Austrian troops capture Novo Alexandria.
Russia The Duma reconvenes. Deputy after deputy denounces the incompetence of the army’s administration and vote to examine charges against all persons to blame for inadequacies in equipment.
Germany The Kaiser issues a manifesto on the first anniversary of the war, asserting that his conscience is clear.
Turkey British submarines destroy the Galata bridge at Constantinople.

August 1, 1916
Western Front, Somme A German counterattack near High Wood fails. The French capture a position near Hern Wood.
Western Front, Verdun German attacks west and south of Thiaumont fail.
Eastern Front Russian attacks along the Stokhod are repulsed.

August 1, 1917
Western Front, Ypres The Germans counterattack and retake St. Julien, but fail elsewhere. French attacks make gains along the Yser Canal. New German attacks at Verdun retake the ground lost on July 17.
Eastern Front The Germans reach the Bessarabian border. The Russians are in rapid retreat. The Austro-Germans hold a 50-mile wide position across the Zbrucz.
Rumanian Front The Marasti offensive comes to a close. It has failed to encircle he Germans as hoped, but it has gained considerable ground and battered Austrian 1st Army. Losses have been relatively light – 5000 Rumanian and 9600 Central Powers.
World Affairs Pope Benedict XV calls for a “just and lasting peace” with no annexations or indemnities.

August 1, 1918
Western Front The Allied advance on the Ourcq reaches the line Cramoiselle-Cramaille. In the Rheims sector, the French take Cierges.
Russia Allied troops are landed at Archangelsk and secure the city with minimal resistance, aided by a local coup.

August 1, 1919
Hungary Bela Kun’s government falls. Kun flees to Russia.
War in the Air Alexander Kazakov, Russia’s leading ace (32 kills, 15 during the Civil War), dies in a crash during take-off while flying for the Whites on the Archangelsk Front. Many believe he committed suicide in despair over the Allies’ impending withdrawal.
Russia Denikin opens a new offensive to clear Ukraine and advance toward Moscow.
United States Establishment of the General Intelligence Division of the Justice Department’s Bureau of Investigation, under J. Edgar Hoover. It will later evolve into the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

August 1, 1920
India Gandhi’s Indian National Congress begins its first Non-Cooperation Movement, boycotting British courts, schools, goods, and elections. The campaign has some initial success, but by March 1922, the government feels safe enough to arrest Gandhi. The Congress meanwhile changes its goals from self-government within the Empire to full independence. A split begins to develop between the Hindu majority and the Muslims and Muslim leader M. A. Jinnah leaves the party.