The Military History Thread

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March 15, 1916
Mexican Punitive Expedition

Issues between the United States and Mexico began shortly after the beginning of the 1910 Revolution, with various factions threatening foreign business interests and citizens. With the ascendancy of Venustiano Carranza, the United States elected to recognize his government on October 19, 1915. This decision angered Francisco “Pancho” Villa who commanded revolutionary forces in northern Mexico and had previously had much support in Washington. During the Battle of Agua Prieta (see posting), the US allowed Carrancista forces to move by rail through American territory. Feeling betrayed, Villa began attacking US nationals and property in northern Mexico. On November 26, Villa sent a force to attack the city of Nogales and in the course of the ensuing battle, engaged with American forces before withdrawing. On January 11, 1916, 16 American were removed from a train near Santa Isabel, Chihuahua, and summarily stripped and executed.

Villa sought to provoke American intervention so as to be able cast himself as a nationalist hero. He mounted a major assault on Columbus, NM. Attacking on the night of March 9, 1916, his men struck the town and a detachment of the 13th US Cavalry Regiment. The resulting fighting left 18 Americans dead, while Villa lost around 67 killed. The next day, facing public outcry and acting on the recommendations of the commanders of his cavalry regiments, Southern Department commanding general Frederick Funston recommended an immediate pursuit in force into Mexico. President Woodrow Wilson concurred, designating Brig. Gen. John Pershing to command. Secretary of State Rombert Lansing concluded an agreement with the Mexicans allowing either government to peruse “bandits” across their shared border.

Organized into a provisional division of 3 brigades (4 regiments of cavalry, 2 of infantry), with 6600 men, the expedition crossed the border into Mexico on March 15 to search for Villa, marching in 2 columns from Columbus and Culberson's Ranch. Pershing established his headquarters at Colonia Dublan near the Casas Grandes River. Though promised use of the Mexican Northwestern Railway, this was not forthcoming and Pershing soon faced a logistical crisis. This was solved through the use of “truck trains” which used Dodge trucks to ferry supplies the 100 miles from Columbus.

With a week’s head start, Villa dispersed his men into the rugged countryside of northern Mexico. As a result, early American efforts to locate him met with failure. While many of the local populace disliked Villa, they were more annoyed by the American incursion and failed to offer assistance.

On March 29, an American column caught up with a Villista detachment at Guerrero after a 55-mile night march through the snowy mountains. The 360 Villistas had paused in the retreat to attack a Carancista garrison. While celebrating their victory, the Villistas were surprised by the Americans and driven off with over 75 casualties, to 5 American.

Persistent winter weather through early April, particularly bitterly cold nights at high altitude, made both pursuit and logistics more difficult. An additional regiment of cavalry and 2 of infantry were added in late April. Ultimately more than 10,000 men - virtually every available unit of the Regular Army and additional National Guard troops - were committed to the expedition either in Mexico or its supporting units at Columbus. By early April, the US expedition had advanced over 300 miles into Mexico. Carranza had assumed that the American incursion would be limited and was alarmed by its scope.

The situation was further complicated on April 13, when 128 Americans were attacked by 500 Mexican troops near Parral, 513 miles into Mexico. They were driven off with 2 American dead and 7 wounded, 14-70 Mexican casualties. Some success was had on May 5 at Ojos Azules, where US cavalry charged a Villa group, killing 41 without loss. On May 14, Lt. George Patton located the commander of Villa's bodyguard Julio Cárdenas at San Miguelito. In the resulting skirmish, Patton killed Cárdenas in an Old West style shootout.

On May 9, at a meeting in El Paso, Carranza’s Secretary of War, Gen. Alvaro Obregon, threatened to send a massive force against the expedition’s supply lines and forcibly drive it out of Mexico. Funston reacted by ordering Pershing to withdraw all his troops to Colonia Dublan. Although the order was rescinded on the evening of May 11 when no evidence of Carrancista troop movements was found, the southernmost supply depots had been closed and materiel sent north that could not easily be turned around. The movements began a gradual withdrawal of the expedition to Dublan. On May 19 units of the 10th and 11th Cavalry returned to the base to guard the supply lines with Columbus and conduct reconnaissance in the absence of the temporarily grounded 1st Aero Squadron.

On June 21, Pershing sent 2 troops of cavalry to scout a nearby area. Captains Morey and Boyd were in command. Boyd encountered 250 Mexican troops under Gen. Felix Gomez near Carrizal. In a discussion with Boyd, Gomez informed the Americans that he could not allow the US unit to continue on to Ahumada without permission from his superiors. Thinking the Mexicans would give way, Boyd ordered an attack, but the Mexican troops surrounded the Americans, killing 12, among them Boyd, and capturing 24. Gomez and 29 of his men also died in the skirmish. President Wilson immediately demanded release of the American prisoners and prepared a message requesting Congress to authorize him to use American troops to drive bandit gangs out of northern Mexico as war threatened to erupt in the aftermath of the confrontation.

A report prepared by Captain Morey proving that the Americans were at fault at Carrizal appeared in American newspapers on the 26th, arousing public sentiment against hostilities with Mexico. Two days later, Carranza ordered the release of the American prisoners, further defusing the situation. On July 4, he suggested that the two nations enter into direct and friendly negotiations to resolve their misunderstanding.

Meanwhile, Villa had effectively taken to the hills; there were no further clashes with his forces. With Pershing's men searching in vain for Villa, Gens. Scott and Funston began negotiations with Obregon, at El Paso. These talks ultimately led to an agreement where American forces would withdraw if Carranza would control Villa. As Pershing's men continued their search, their rear was covered by 110,000 National Guardsmen that Wilson called into service. These men were deployed along the border.

With talks progressing and troops defending the border against raids, Pershing assumed a more defensive position and patrolled less aggressively. The presence of American forces, along with combat losses and desertions, effectively limited Villa’s ability to pose a meaningful threat. Through the summer, American troops battled boredom at Dublan through sporting activities, gambling, and imbibing at the numerous cantinas. Other needs were met through an officially sanctioned and monitored brothel established in the American camp. Pershing's forces remained in place through the fall.

On January 18, 1917, with the threat of war with Germany growing, Funston informed Pershing that American troops would be withdrawn at “an early date”. Pershing began moving north towards the border on January 27, crossing back into the USA on February 5. Officially concluded, the Punitive Expedition had failed in its objective to capture Villa. The warlord had achieved his goal of casting himself in a nationalist light and actually ended the expedition stronger than he began it. Carranza had also used anti-American sentiment to strengthen his own position. Pershing privately complained that Wilson had imposed too many restrictions on the expedition, but also admitted that Villa had “outwitted and out-bluffed [him] at every turn.”

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March 16, 1504
Siege of Cochin

Since the fragmentation of the Chera state in the 10th century, the ruler of the city-state of Calicut (now Kozhikode), known as the Zamorin, had been generally recognized as overlord by most of the small states on the Malabar Coast of India. Calicut grew as a commercial city, emerging as the major entrepot of the Kerala pepper trade and the principal emporium for other spices from further east. In 1500, the Portuguese negotiated a treaty with the Zamorin, and a factory was opened in Calicut. But within a couple of months, quarrels erupted between Portuguese agents and established Arab traders, in which the Zamorin refused to intervene. In December, 1500, a riot overran the factory and many Portuguese were massacred. Blaming the Zamorin, they demanded that he compensate them and expel all Arab traders, bombarding the city when the demand was refused. War broke out. The Portuguese quickly found local allies among some of the city-states on the Malabar coast which had grated under Calicut’s dominance. Cochin (Kochi), Cannanore (Kannur) and Quilon (Kollam) opened their ports and invited the Portuguese. Portuguese expeditions to the Indian Ocean routinely bombarded Calicut and attacked her ships, disrupting the city’s trade.

The Zamorin quickly learned not to challenge the Portuguese at sea - the technological gap was just too great - but on land the difference was not nearly as lopsided. The Portuguese presence in India consisted only of a handful of commercial agents. The Portuguese had come for spices. The Zamorin calculated that if he could exert his traditional authority in Malabar and close off access to spices, the Portuguese would either leave or be forced to negotiate terms. That meant trying to force Cochin, Cannanore and Quilon into shutting their markets to the Portuguese. Cochin rejected the demands. In April 1503, the Zamorin led an army of some 50,000 against Cochin, gathering more from allies along the way. The Portuguese withdrew to the island of Vypin (Vaipi) and Cochin city fell. The island held out until 6 Portuguese ships arrived in August, the vanguard of the year’s trade armada. The allied Malabari armies began to melt away immediately. The Zamorin reluctantly dismantled the siege and returned to Calicut.

Cochin had been saved, but the Zamorin’s armies were sure to return next spring, as soon as the armada left. So the Portuguese immediately set about making preparations for defense in the fleet's absence. Local princelings who had supported the siege were punished, or switched sides. A fort was built at the edge of Cochin peninsula, just west of the old city. Fort Manuel de Cochin, as it was named, was the first Portuguese fort in Asia, and completed in a couple of months. The armada departed in January 1504, leaving a garrison of 150 under Duarte Pacheco Pereira. Meanwhile, the Zamorin was assembling a new invasion force, better equipped than the last. The Turks provided a shipment of firearms and 2 Venetian agents helped in the building of better artillery. The Zamorin led an army of 57,000, with 5 large Venetian guns and nearly 300 smaller Indian ones. His fleet numbered 160 vessels, under his nephew and heir Naubea Daring.

Pereira determined that he needed to block the enemy at Kambalam ford. He placed the factor Diogo Fernandes Correia with 39 men at Ft. Manuel, with the large nao Concepcao in support, blocking the way to Calicut city. Three caravels , each with 4 swivel guns, would try to hold the ford. These had been lined with sacks of cotton to protect against cannonballs. A makeshift stockade was built to block the passage of troops. The rajah of Cochin, most of his men having deserted, had 5000 men; he assigned 500 to the defense of the ford, holding the rest at the city.

The massive Calicut army and fleet soon arrived. The Cochinese broke and fled, leaving only the 3 Portuguese ships and 90 men. Pereira directed his fire on the large Venetian guns, scattering their crews. The Calicut fleet began the attack, but the narrow channel prevented them from making full use of their numbers; only a dozen or so could engage at any one time. Five attacks were shattered and the fleet retreated. The ground assault foundered without naval support.

A second assault began on April 7. Pereira was joined by a 4th ship. The Zamorin sent his main fleet against the ford, but sent a force of 70 vessels directly toward Cochin and engage the Concepcao, hoping that this would force the Portuguese to abandon the ford to defend the city. Pereira took 2 vessels to the city after the rajah sent a desperate appeal. As the Concepcao was fending off the attack, the arrival of the 2 new ships forced the Calicutis to break off. He raced back to the ford just in time to repulse the new attack there.

On the 9th, the Zamorin decided to hold back his fleet until the Portuguese were sunk or badly damaged by shore batteries. Pereira ordered his men to hold their fire, hoping that this would make the Calicut gun crews overconfident and induce them to move their large guns into effective range of his own pieces. The ruse worked perfectly as the Calicut captains concluded that the Portuguese had run out of ammunition. Not only did the guns move up, but the Calicut fleet decided that this was a golden opportunity and launched themselves downriver. They lost 22 vessels and 600 dead before retreating and the gun crews had lost heavily. The Portuguese had not a single fatality.

In late April, the Zamorin began to withdraw, seemingly back to Calicut. But Duarte Pereira soon received notice that the army was in fact heading to the Palignar-Palurte passes, and that advanced troops were already on Arraul island, cutting down thickets to ease the passage of the army. Pereira rushed with a couple of boats up to Arraul, while the rajah dispatched 200 Cochinese to join him there. Two caravels anchored at Palurte, but the water was too shallow beyond this, leaving 2 bateis to hold Palignar ford. The key to the defense was the tides; Pereira did not have the strength to defend both passes at once. Palignar could only be crossed at low tide, at which time Palurte would be too shallow for the Zamorin’s vessels. The reverse was true at high tide. So Pereira would have to shuttle between the two points as needed.

The vanguard of the Zamorin’s army, some 15,000 infantry led by Prince Naubeadarim, arrived at Palignar at the same time as the Calicut fleet, some 250 vessels under Ercanol of Edapalli, reached the environs of Palurte. Naubeadrim set himself to seize control of the ford with his army, leaving Ercanol to dislodge the caravels at Palurte. The tide was high, so the fleet attacked first, to be badly beaten. As the tide began to fall, the fleet retired. Pereira then rushed back to Palignar in time repulse the infantry assault there. The day's fight was probably the heaviest the Portuguese had yet faced. They had little time to prepare proper defenses and were lucky to get away with it. The Portuguese were exhausted and suffered many injured (but still no deaths). It was followed by torrential rains that prevented further attacks and an outbreak of cholera in the Calicut camp, which felled over 10,000 men.

On May 6, the Zamorin launched his biggest attack yet, concentrating all his strength at Palignar. At this point there were only 40 Portuguese and 200 Cochinese. Human wave assaults suffered horrific casualties, but finally gained the far bank. By this time, however, the tide was rising again. After a 9-hour fight, the Zamorin had failed again.

Preparations for a new assault on Palignar ford began sometime in late May (possibly June.) 30,000 troops were assembled for the new assault. The artillery was moved into pre-prepared trenches, where the batteries would be better shielded from return-fire. Against Palurte, Elacanol prepared the fleet - the vanguard led by 110 well-armed and well-shielded paraus, tied together, followed by some 100 transports, packed with soldiers for the grapple. There were a few innovations – firstly, a series of fire-boats were prepared, intended to be sent into the Portuguese caravels. Then, most peculiar of all, 8 “floating castles” were built, wooden siege towers with heavily reinforced sides, capable of carrying 40 armed men, mounted on two paraus lashed together. Peiera took counter-measures. Against the fire-boats, he ordered the construction of a wide raft anchored firmly across the strait. Hearing of the floating castles, he ordered the erection of wooden structures on the prows of his caravels, to match the height of the Calicut castles.

On the dawn of the day of the attack, the Zamorin’s infantry began their march towards Palignar. Pereira sailed in a boat up to the tip of Arraul island and landed with a small squad to engage in a skirmish with the vanguard of the Calicut army. The irritated Zamorin redirected a large detachment after him. Pereira just climbed back on his boat and sailed away. The tide being high, the battle began at Palurte. The fireships were snared by the raft and burned harmlessly. Concentrated cannon fire dealt with the floating castles. While the caravels were thus engaged, the tide had come down and the Zamorin’s infantry marched on Palignar ford. Incessant gunfire mowed down line after line of Calicut infantry as they stepped into the ford. The assault was repelled, until the high tide returned and forced the attackers to end the attempted crossing. The army of Calicut suffered more casualties on this day than any other.

By now, the monsoon season had begun to turn; rain spread disease and complicated movement, water levels were higher at the passages, sailing the paraus more difficult. One by one, the vassals of Calicut were sneaking away. It was generally anticipated that a new Portuguese armada would be arriving in August. Many vassals figured it was best to negotiate their own peace terms. The last of these to make a separate peace was Elcanol of Edapalli. Finally, on June 24, 1504, the Zamorin decided he’d had enough, abdicated and retired to a temple. But the tired Zamorin was lured by the chiding of his own mother to emerge from the temple and organize one last assault. But after that failed to go anywhere, the Zamorin returned to religious seclusion permanently. The army of Calicut retreated on July 3 It had lost 19,000 dead, over half to disease. There were no recorded Portugese deaths.

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March 17, 1920
Ruhr Revolt

As the Treaty of Versailles came into force on January 10, 1920, the German government had to drastically reduce its regular armed forces, and dissolve paramilitary units like the right-wing Freikorps. Consequently, the German defense minister Gustav Noske ordered the dissolution of the Freikorps Marine Brigades Ehrhardt and Loewenfeld. The highest ranking general of the Reichswehr, Walther von Lüttwitz refused to comply, which resulted in what became known as Kapp Putsch. On March 13, 1920, the Marine Brigade Ehrhardt led by von Lüttwitz marched into Berlin, occupied government buildings and installed Wolfgang Kapp as new chancellor, calling for a return of the monarchy. To restore order, Noske then asked Hans von Seeckt, who at the time was the head of the Truppenamt (unofficial General Staff), to order the regular army, the Transitional Reichswehr, to put down the putsch. Seeckt and other senior commanders with the exception of Gen. Walther Reinhardt refused, though they did not come out in support, either, and the government was forced to flee from Berlin. Since the ministerial bureaucracy did not cooperate with the Kapp government, however, it could not govern effectively. On the very day of the putsch, the Social Democratic (SPD) members of the government and Otto Wels, head of the SPD, signed a call for a general strike. Separately, the KPD (Communists), USPD (Independent Socialists) and the DDP (Democrats) also called for a strike. Some 12 million workers responded.

The first demonstrations against the putsch were in the Ruhr region on March 13. The next day, the left-wing workers' parties decided on a spontaneous alliance against the putschists. The SPD, USPD and KPD drafted a joint appeal to “winning political power by the dictatorship of the proletariat”. As a consequence of this appeal, some workers’ organizations attempted to seize state power on a regional scale. Across the Ruhr area, spontaneously formed local “Executive Councils” took over political power. These were mostly dominated by the USPD, with the KPD also participating. The anarcho-syndicalist Free Workers’ Union of Germany (FAUD) was also represented. Worker militias were deployed to control the cities. The generals, continuing to straddle the fence, refused to deploy troops to suppress the strike, effectively dooming the putsch.

This Red Ruhr Army, whose strength was estimated at approximately 50,000 members judging by the number of rifles that were later confiscated, managed to prevail over the government forces in the area in a very short time. On March 17, units of the Red Ruhr Army near Wetter attacked an advance party of the Freikorps Lichtschlag under Captain Hasenclever, who upon being asked had identified himself as a supporter of the Kapp government. They took the enemy weapons, captured 600 Freikorps members and occupied Dortmund. On March 20 in Essen, a Central Committee of the Workers’ councils was formed, the latter being in the process of taking power in parts of the Ruhr. Another central organ was in Hagen. The uprising possessed no common leadership nor a common political program, although turning ownership of important industries over to the workers was an important issue.

The putsch collapsed on March 17 and the general strike was officially declared as having ended on March 22 by the unions, the USPD and the KDP after additional concessions by the government of chancellor Gustav Bauer. These included the dismissal of Noske as well as changes to social and economic policies. The demands by the USPD that a socialist workers’ government be installed were rejected.

The legitimate government, newly returned to Berlin, issued an ultimatum on March 24, demanding that the workers’ councils put an end to the strike and the uprising by March 30 (later extended to April 2); the councils did not comply. On March 25, the Bauer government resigned and President Friedrich Ebert appointed Hermann Müller as the new chancellor. An attempt to settle the conflict at the negotiating table failed. The consequence was the renewed proclamation of a general strike. More than 300,000 miners (about 75% of the miners’ work force) joined in. The Communist rising brought Düsseldorf and Elberfeld into their hands. By the end of March the whole Ruhr area was under their control. The Wesel citadel was attacked on March 24, but here the Ruhr Army experienced its first defeat.

The structure of the Ruhr Red Army was, like the political demands and positions of the different councils, very diffuse and subject to frequent changes. The USPD-dominated eastern area organized and armed itself earlier, but did not support a continuation of armed action against the newly restored government. On the other hand, the mobilization was slower in the trade union-dominated west, but later the continuation of the uprising found greater support here.

Although inclined to disband the Freikorps that had just tried to overthrow it, the government had little choice but to rely on them again and they made up a large proportion of the government forces sent against the rising. The offensive began on April 2; Gen. Oskar von Watter commanded. Advancing from the north, the offensive made good progress, occupying all of the north by the 8th. Resistance was over by the 12th.

The presence of German troops in the demilitarized zone aroused French suspicions. On April 6, French troops occupied several cities around Frankfurt as a “precautionary measure”. The next day, French African troops in Frankfurt, jeered by mobs, opened fire, killing 7. The French remained until German troops left the demilitarized zone on May 17

The fighting was followed by death sentences and mass executions. Those who were found carrying weapons at the time of their arrest were shot - including the wounded. On April 3, Ebert forbade these summary executions. On April 12, Gen. von Watter forbade his soldiers from engaging in “unlawful behavior”. The actions of both sides in the fighting have been described as showing “a maximum of cruelty”.

By the end of the fighting, the rebels had lost over 1000 dead, the Reichswehr 208 dead and 123 missing, and the Freikorps about 273 lives.

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881
Battle of the Conwy

The Welsh kingdoms had been subject to Mercia since the mid 7th-century, and in 853 the Mercians received the assistance of the West Saxons to maintain their hegemony. In the 870s Mercia became subject to attacks by the Viking Great Heathen Army, and in 874 it drove out King Burgred, He was succeeded by the last independent King of Mercia, Ceolwulf II, who was presented by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as a puppet of the Vikings. In 877 they partitioned Mercia, taking the east for themselves and leaving the west to Ceolwulf. Gwynedd was also under attack from the Vikings, and in 877 King Rhodri Mawr was defeated and driven out. He returned the following year, but immediately came under attack from Mercia, which was still trying to maintain its hegemony in Wales. King Alfred’s victory over the Vikings at the Battle of Ethandun (see posting) in 878 relieved the pressure on Mercia, and in the same year Mercia defeated and killed Rhodri Mawr. Ceolwulf died or was deposed in 879, and he was succeeded as Lord of the Mercians by Aethelred.

In 881 the Mercians invaded Gwynedd, and they met Anarawd and his brothers, sons of Rhodri, at the Battle of the Conwy. The result was a Mercian defeat, described by Welsh annals as “revenge by God for Rhodri”. In the view of Thomas Charles-Edwards, this represents the Welsh view of the conflict between the two kingdoms as a blood feud. According to a 13th-century collection of Welsh genealogies, the Mercian leader was called “Edryd Long-Hair”, almost certainly Aethelred.

Mercia was forced to abandon its claim to lordship over north Wales, although Aethelred continued to attempt to exercise power over the southeastern Welsh kingdoms of Glywysing and Gwent. These sought the lordship of Alfred the Great in response. Aethelred followed in accepting West Saxon lordship by 883.

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March 18, 1167
Battle of al-Babein

After the death of Syrian warlord Imad ad-Din Zengi, his son, Nur al-Din came to power in Aleppo. In 1154, he gained control of Damascus when there was no one in power over the city. He became the first Seljuq leader since the 1090s to unite north and south Syria.

In Egypt, Vizier Shawar had full authority over the Fatimids and was advisor to the caliph. Shawar required the support of Nur al-Din’s generals to maintain control. He turned to one of them, Shirkuh, for assistance. After Shawar found out Shirkuh’s price was higher than he was willing to pay, Shawar turned to King Amalric of Jerusalem. Amalric I ruled from 1163 to 1174, and had been an ally and nominal protector of the Fatimid government. Shirkuh was almost ready to establish territory of his own in Egypt when Amalric invaded. After several months of campaigning, Shrikuh was forced to withdraw.

Shirkuh was a skilled political operator and aspired to become Nur al-Din’s right-hand man. He had fought in the Battle of Inab in 1149 (see posting) and had killed Raymond of Antioch during the battle in a personal duel. He gained a reputation for attention to detail and tactical excellence. When Nur al-Din captured Damascus in 1154, he sent Shirkuh before the ambassadors to negotiate the border between Damascus and Aleppo.

In 1167, Amalric intended to destroy the army sent by Nur al-Din from Syria before it could make Shirkuh’s position too strong. A key figure in Nur-al-Din’s expeditionary force was Saladin, a nephew of Shirkuh.
Saladin had been reluctant to go and only agreed because Shirkuh was family. He took thousands of troops, his bodyguards, and 200,000 gold pieces to Egypt, to take over the nation.

Amalric depended on the Military Orders (Hospitallers and Templars) for his invasion of Egypt. Because he was ally and protector of the Fatimid government, he invaded Egypt several times during his reign. These campaigns were not very successful, as they always ran into complications leading to failure each time.

King Amalric ordered only his mounted forces (374 knights and some turcopole horse archers) to chase Shirkuh and the Muslims out of Egypt. He pursued Shirkuh’s troops up the valley of the Nile and across the river to Giza. This almost worked, but the Muslims turned to fight where the cultivated ground ended and the desert began. The steep slopes and soft sand reduced the effectiveness of the Latin cavalry. Shirkuh intended to draw back in the center, under Saladin, drawing the Latins forward, and then hit them in the flanks.

Amalric almost fell into the trap, sending his main attack against Shirkuh’s center. Saladin then drew Amalric and the Franks away from the battlefield. The fight broke up into smaller skirmishes. However, the flank attacks never materialized. When Amalric returned from pursuing Saladin, he rallied his troops and attacked the rest of Shirkuh’s army. His men were tired by now and less effective; though they broke through the enemy lines they could not exploit this success and Amalric was left with no choice but to withdraw. Technically a draw, the battle was a strategic defeat for Amalric; he had lost 100 knights and his chance to dominate Egypt.

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March 19, 1643
Battle of Hopton Heath

Early in 1643, the King’s Oxford army was on the defensive, threatened from the east by the Earl of Essex at Windsor, and from the west by Sir William Waller who was active on the Welsh border. The Oxford army was not strong enough to move against London without help from the Earl of Newcastle in Yorkshire or Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, so during the winter of 1642-3, the King attempted to consolidate his central position. The ring of defensive garrisons around Oxford was completed by the capture of Marlborough in December 1642.

The Royalists steadily gained ground in the Midlands to the north of Oxford. Local forces had established garrisons at Tamworth, Lichfield, and Stafford by the end of 1642, while a detachment from Newcastle’s army seized the stronghold of Newark. However, with the arrival of Queen Henrietta Maria in Yorkshire early in February 1643, Newcastle fell back to York to protect the Queen and the substantial munitions convoy that she brought from the Continent.

Parliament was anxious to break the Royalist hold on the Midlands, fearing that it would allow an advance from York by Newcastle and the Queen to join forces with the Oxford army. The commander of Parliament’s forces in Staffordshire and Warwickshire was the Puritan magnate Lord Robert Brooke, regarded by many as a potential replacement for the Earl of Essex as captain-general of Parliament’s armies. On February 25, 1643, Brooke defeated Col. Wagstaffe’s Royalists at Stratford-upon-Avon then advanced on Lichfield which commanded the main north-south road through Staffordshire.

The Royalist Earl of Chesterfield had occupied Lichfield early in 1643. The town had neither walls nor a castle so a garrison was established in the Cathedral Close, which was encircled by a high wall. Ammunition was stored in the Cathedral itself and cannon were mounted at strategic points around the building. Brooke arrived at the beginning of March and besieged the Close. The towers and spires were badly damaged during the bombardment. On March 4, Lord Brooke was shot through the eye and killed whilst observing the Royalist position. The death of the radical Puritan peer, who had denounced cathedrals as the haunts of the Antichrist, on the festival day of St Chad, the patron saint of Lichfield, was regarded as a divine judgment by the Royalists. His deputy Sir John Gell took over the siege. The Royalist garrison surrendered 2 days later, but Brooke’s death was a serious blow to Parliament.

Alarmed at the loss of Lichfield, King Charles sent Spencer Compton, Earl of Northampton to recover it. In mid-March, Northampton marched north from Banbury with 2 regiments of horse and a small number of foot. At Stafford, he joined forces with Col.-Gen. Henry Hastings with several regiments of horse. The combined Royalist army numbered about 1200 men, mostly cavalry. Meanwhile, Sir John Gell had turned his attention to Stafford. He arranged a rendezvous with the Cheshire commander Sir William Brereton at Hopton Heath, about 3 miles northeast of Stafford, intending to attack the town with their combined forces.

Gell arrived on Hopton Heath around noon on March 19 and deployed defensively to await the arrival of Brereton’s Cheshire contingent which was approaching from the northwest. On learning of Gell’s approach, Northampton gathered his forces and marched out of Stafford to force battle. Gell deployed the main body of his infantry on rough ground, where the Royalist cavalry could not maneuver easily. Artillery was positioned on high ground to the rear. On Gell’s left flank, hedges and walls formed a natural breastwork for his musketeers. The small force of cavalry was positioned on the right flank, and was soon joined by Brereton’s cavalry ahead of the main Cheshire contingent.

Northampton decided to attack immediately before Brereton’s infantry could deploy. The Royalists brought up a heavy demi-cannon known as Roaring Meg and opened fire on the Parliamentarian center. Encouraged by the success of his gunners, Northampton led the first cavalry charge, which drove most of the Parliamentarian horse from the field. A second charge overran the Parliamentarian artillery. A number of guns were captured and the main body of infantry was almost routed. However, Northampton was unhorsed during the fighting and separated from his men. Surrounded by enemies, he refused to surrender to “base rogues”. After killing several Roundheads, he was struck down and killed by a halberd blow to the head. Sir Thomas Byron led a third charge, but was unable to break the Parliamentarian infantry. Hastings tried to rally the cavalry for a fourth charge, but by then they were exhausted. The battle ended when dusk fell and the Parliamentarians withdrew, leaving the Royalists in possession of the field. Brereton returned to Cheshire and Gell to Derby, abandoning their attempt to capture Stafford.

Sir John Gell carried away the Earl of Northampton's body. When the Earl’s son refused to return the cannon captured at Hopton Heath or the money Gell had paid to embalm the body, the corpse was paraded through the streets of Derby before its burial at All Hallows Church.

After the death of the Earl of Northampton, the King appointed Prince Rupert commander of Royalist forces in the Midlands. With the Queen and her munitions convoy still at York, it was vital to secure a safe route for her to advance south to join forces with the King. Rupert set about reducing Roundhead strongholds in the Midlands.

Rupert’s first target was Birmingham, noted both for its intense Puritanism and its iron industry, which supplied the Parliamentarian armies with sword blades. The town had no walls or natural defenses, but a force of 200 Parliamentarians commanded by Captain Greaves was positioned behind hastily-erected earthworks at Camp Hill when Rupert approached with 1200 horse and 700 foot on April 3. Although heavily outnumbered, the Parliamentarians put up a solid resistance. Rupert’s troops were driven back twice under heavy fire. Greaves withdrew into Birmingham itself when Rupert sent flanking parties to work around the position. The Royalists came under renewed fire as they advanced into Birmingham. They were temporarily halted by a counterattack in which Lord Denbigh was mortally wounded. When the Parliamentarians were finally driven out, the Royalists plundered and burnt the town before marching on.

Rupert next besieged Lichfield which Lord Brooke had captured for Parliament in March. Lichfield Cathedral had been transformed into a temporary fortress. Several attempts were made to storm the walls of the Cathedral Close during the 10-day siege, but lacking heavy guns, Rupert called up 50 miners from Cannock Chase firstly to drain the moat around the Close and then to tunnel up to the walls. The tunnels were packed with gunpowder, and on April 20 Rupert's engineers detonated the first explosive mine to be used in an English siege to open a massive breach. The breach, the Parliamentarians surrendered the following day.

Although Lichfield was taken, Prince Rupert was unable to continue his campaign to secure the Midlands because of events further south. On April 13, the Earl of Essex finally marched to besiege Reading in the first stage of his long-anticipated campaign to attack Oxford. Rupert was promptly recalled south to counter this new threat to the Royalist capital.

[Ennath]

March 20, 2003
Battle of Al Faw

One of the initial objectives of the Coalition campaign in Iraq was to capture the Gas and Oil Platforms (“GOPLATs”) in the Al-Faw Peninsula intact before they could be sabotaged or destroyed by the Iraqi military. This would prevent an ecological disaster similar to the 1991 Gulf War and enable a quicker resumption of oil exports, which was vital to the rebuilding of Iraq after the war.

The British Royal Marines’ 3 Commando Brigade (Brigadier Jim Dutton) would also capture Umm Qasr at the same time so that its port, the only deep water port in Iraq, could be used to bring in humanitarian supplies once the Khawr Abd Allah waterway was cleared by the Mine Counter Measures Task group. The United States Marine Corps placed 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit under the command of 3 Commando Brigade so that the Brigade had the necessary force to capture both targets.

The main objective for the coalition was to capture the Khawr Abd Allah waterway on the al-Faw peninsula; this had to be secured quickly so that it was open for relief vessels to deliver emergency equipment. During the 1991 War, the Iraqis had mined the waterway and the northern Gulf; coalition commanders suspected they would do the same again, so they dispatched minesweepers to clear the area. The eastern side of the waterway was part of the al-Faw peninsula and Iraqi-occupied; the mine-sweepers were not well-protected and would be vulnerable to the defenses. The waterway was shallow and its canals dry so large warships could not provide effective protection. So it became necessary that the eastern bank of the waterway and the peninsula be secured; additionally, the docks at Umm Qasr could only be used safely if the al-Faw peninsula was cleared.

The plan provided that US Navy SEAL Team 3 would make the initial assault on the MMS (monitoring and metering station) and the pipelines, landing via 8 MH-53 helicopters. After 30 minutes the Royal Marines would take over. Part of 40 Commando would secure the east bank; an hour later the rest of 40 Commando would move out to take the rest of the peninsula and the town of al-Faw. British and Australian warships would provide fire support.42 Commando would establish blocking positions to the north, with USMC Cobra teams to liaise with US air support. According to coalition intelligence, Iraqi 6th Armored Division was stationed to defend the approaches to Basra and could be sent to intervene; some of its units were based on the peninsula itself and were just a few hours away from the coalition objectives. Allied aircraft were ready to launch support operations against them.

Following days of bad weather, the assault was set for 2200 hours on March 20. US gunships and fighter-bombers attacked known Iraqi positions in a short bombardment prior to the operation. The SEAL assault on the MSS and the pipelines was successful. At the same time, air and sea landings secured the gas and oil platforms out at sea. SEAL Teams 8 and 10 captured the Mina Al Bakr Oil Terminal and Polish GROM commandos captured the Khor Al-Amaya Oil Terminal. 32 Iraqi prisoners were taken. Explosive Ordnance Disposal were then landed on the platforms to search for and remove explosive booby traps and demolition charges.

An AC-130 guided in the RAF helicopters carrying 40 Commando. The insertion was successful and the Commandos secured the MSS and the pipelines; resistance was light. The follow-up attacks cleared Iraqi positions on the way to al-Faw town with aid from the AC-130. Over 200 prisoners were taken.

42 Commando’s assault began at 2225, backed by British and US artillery on Bubiyan Island, by naval gunfire and by a strike by USMC AH-1 Cobra gunships that destroyed Iraqi artillery north of al-Faw town. The insertion began badly with appalling visibility, worsened by fires and sand. The Headquarters of the Brigade Reconnaissance Force crashed in a US CH-46 Sea Knight, killing 7 Royal Marines, a Royal Navy operator and 4 US Marine aviators. The cloud base dropped even further and the commander of the US Marine Air Wing decided to call off any further landings. A new insertion was planned, using RAF Chinook and Puma helicopters for dawn. The landings finally took place, 6 hours late and onto insecure landing zones, but all the objectives were taken and secured.

Early on the 21st, scattered groups of Iraqi soldiers were engaged, but no serious threat materialized. Plans to land British armor by hovercraft were abandoned once Royal Engineers discovered extensive mining of the beaches near Al Faw. The 12 Scimitars of C Squadron, Queen’s Dragoon Guards, which had been loaded on hovercraft aboard USS Rushmore were instead landed back in Kuwait and finally crossed the waterway north of Umm Qasr 24 hours late.

The initial assault on Umm Qasr was carried out on March 20, by the 15th MEU and British 26th Armored Engineer Squadron. There was little organized resistance and 200 prisoners. On March 22, Marines believing there was no further resistance in the town, moved on to the port area, clearing the railway lines and industrial areas. On the morning of the 23rd, a US patrol near the town was fired on by snipers. While returning fire they reported Iraqi forces moving into one of the warehouses in the industrial area. The patrol called in tanks which fired on the Iraqi positions. Intense fire directed at the Marines prevented them moving forward to identify their targets, so they called in air support. 2 RAF Harriers responded. Machine gun fire died down, but the Marines came under increased sniper fire from the town. The fighting continued into the night but the Marines were unable to make any progress. Brigadier Dutton knew 15th MEU needed more time but they were scheduled to join up with I Marine Expeditionary Force within the next 2 days, so he decided to replace the unit with 42 Commando could take over. Umm Qasr was cleared by the end of the 25th.

On the 24th, 40 Commando and the armor began moving up the peninsula toward Basra. An Iraqi armored brigade, with 60 T-55s, attempted a counterattack on al Faw; air support by FA-18s and A-10s aided the British in repulsing this, with 20 T-55s destroyed.

With the route to Umm Qasr declared safe and the Al Faw Peninsula largely in Coalition hands, this allowed the British 7th Armored Brigade to press on to Basra and US forces to advance on Baghdad without the threat of Iraqi forces near Basra attacking Coalition supply lines. The minesweepers (aided by divers and trained dolphins) cleared the approaches to Umm Qasr and the port played an important role in the shipment of humanitarian supplies to Iraqi civilians.

[Ennath]

March 21, 1858
Recapture of Lucknow

When the Indian Mutiny broke out in May 1857, it threatened British authority in several areas of India, but most particularly in Oudh, where the resentful dispossessed rulers and landowners joined with the mutinied regiments (Bengal Native troops, and Oudh Irregular units formerly belonging to the Kingdom of Oudh).

From July 1 to November 26,, 1857, the British had withstood the siege of the Residency (see posting, Relief of Lucknow) to the north of the city. When the besieged garrison was finally relieved by the British commander-in-chief, Sir Colin Campbell, the Residency was evacuated, as Campbell’s communications were threatened. He returned to Cawnpore from where the relief expedition had been mounted, with all the civilians evacuated from the Residency and the sick and wounded. However, he left a division of 4000 men under Sir James Outram to hold the Alambagh, a walled park 2 miles south of the city.

During the following winter campaigning season, Campbell re-established his communications with Delhi and Calcutta. He also received fresh reinforcements from Britain and built up a substantial transport and supply column. After capturing Fatehgarh on January 1, 1858, which allowed him to establish control over the countryside between Cawnpore and Delhi, Campbell suggested leaving Oudh alone during 1858, concentrating instead on recapturing the state of Rohilkhand, which was also in rebel hands. However, the Governor General, Lord Canning, insisted that Oudh be recaptured, so as to discourage other potential rebels.

Campbell’s army consisted of 17 infantry battalions, 28 cavalry squadrons and 134 guns and mortars, with a large and unwieldy baggage train and large numbers of Indian camp followers. Combatants numbered about 31,000. The army crossed the Ganges River in late February, and advanced to rendezvous with Outram at the Alambagh on March 1. The army was then reorganized into 3 infantry divisions under Outram, Robert Walpole and Edward Lugard, and a cavalry division under James Hope Grant. A force of 9000 Nepalis (not to be confused with the regular Gurkha units of the Bengal Army) was approaching from the north, commanded by Brigadier Franks.

The defenders of Lucknow were said to number 100,000. This suspiciously large and round figure reflects the fact that the defenders lacked coordinated leadership, and were largely the personal retinues of landowners, or loosely organized bodies of fighters, whose motives, dedication and equipment varied widely. The British were not able to gain any reliable reports of their numbers. The rebels were nevertheless equipped with large numbers of cannon and had heavily fortified the Charbagh Canal, the city and the palaces and mosques adjoining the Residency to the north of the city. They had not, however, fortified the northern approaches on the north bank of the Gumti River, which had not seen fighting previously. (During the British relief moves in 1857, the ground had been flooded by monsoon rains.)

Campbell began by repeating his moves of the relief of the Residency the previous year. He moved to the east of the city and Charbagh Canal to occupy the walled Dilkusha Park, although this time he suffered from rebel artillery fire until his own guns could be brought up. On March 5, Campbell’s engineers constructed 2 pontoon bridges across the Gumti. Outram’s division crossed to the north bank, and by March 9, they were established north of the city. Under covering fire from siege guns, his division captured the grandstand of the King of Oudh’s racecourse (the Chakar Kothi). Meanwhile, Campbell’s main body captured La Martiniere (formerly a school for the children of British civilians) and forced their way across the Charbagh Canal with few casualties.

By March 11, Outram captured 2 bridges across the Gumti near the Residency (an iron bridge and a nearby stone bridge) although heavy rebel artillery fire forced him to abandon the stone bridge. Meanwhile, Campbell occupied an enclosed palace (the Secundrabagh) and a mosque (the Shah Najaf) with little opposition; these positions had been the scene of heavy fighting the previous November. In front of him was a block of palace buildings, collectively known as the Begum Kothi. There was severe fighting for these on the 11th, in which 600-700 rebels died.

Over the next 3 days, Campbell’s engineers and gunners blasted and tunneled their way through the buildings between the Begum Kothi and the main rebel position in the King of Oudh’s palace, the Kaisarbagh. Meanwhile, Outram’s guns bombarded the Kaisarbagh from the north. The main assault on the Kaisarbagh took place on March 14. Campbell’s and Frank’s forces attacked from the east, but Campbell surprisingly refused Outram permission to cross the Gumti and take the Kaisarbagh between 2 fires. As a result, although the Kaisarbagh was easily captured, its defenders were able to retreat without difficulty.

Most of the rebels were abandoning Lucknow and scattering into the countryside. Campbell failed to stop most of them, by sending his cavalry after some who had left earlier. Operations temporarily halted while the British reorganized and most regiments fell to looting the captured palaces.

On March 16, Outram finally recrossed the Gumti, and his division advanced on and stormed the Residency. There were disjointed rebel counterattacks on the Alambagh and the British positions north of the Gumti, which failed. A rebel force which was supposed to contain Begum Hazrat Mahal, the wife of the dispossessed King of Oudh, and her son Birjis Qadra whom the rebels had proclaimed King, was driven from the Musabagh, another walled palace 4 miles northwest of Lucknow. The last rebels, 1200 men under a noted leader, Ahmadullah Shah, also known as the Maulvi of Faizabad, were driven from a fortified house in the center of the city on March 21. The city was declared cleared on this date.

Campbell had advanced cautiously and had captured Lucknow with few casualties (127 dead, 595 wounded), but by failing to prevent the rebels escaping, he was forced to spend much of the following summer and monsoon season clearing the rebels from the countryside of Oudh. As a result, his army suffered heavy casualties from heatstroke and other diseases. Outram had also failed to protest his orders not to advance on March 14, which had allowed most rebels to escape. Outram was Civil Commissioner for Oudh in addition to his military command, and may have allowed his hopes for pacification and reconciliation to override his soldier’s instincts.

[Ennath]

1157
Battle of Grathe Heath

After Eric III of Denmark abdicated in 1146, Sweyn III was declared king of Zealand and Scania, while Canute became king of Jutland. Canute made several attempts to conquer Zealand (1147 and 1150), but was driven off and fled to Germany, where he managed to raise an army. In 1152, a battle was fought at Gedebaek, close to Viborg. Canute lost and appealed to the German king (later emperor), Frederick I Barbarossa, who commanded both kings to meet him at Merseburg. Here, Frederick confirmed Sweyn’s rights of kingship, and Sweyn swore fealty to him.

The nobles of Denmark were getting worried about the growing German influence. Valdemar, having at first joined Sweyn, who had made him duke of Schleswig, changed sides and was betrothed to Canute’s half-sister Sophie. Both Canute and Sweyn were hailed as kings at the Landsting in Viborg in 1154.

The three contenders agreed to share power, so that Valdemar would rule Jutland, Canute would rule the islands of Zealand and Funen, and Sweyn would rule Scania. Then a reconciling feast was agreed upon, and it was held in Roskilde on August 9, 1157. But, according to Saxo Grammaticus, Sweyn ordered his men to kill the 2 other kings. Canute was slain, but Valdemar, though wounded, managed to turn over some great candlesticks and escape in the ensuing fire and confusion. He fled in the darkness and managed to return to Jutland.

People flocked to Valdemar’s banner when Sweyn’s treachery was revealed, and he gathered a great host. Sweyn landed at Grenå, but his fleet was destroyed by a combination of force and guile. Sweyn marched upon Randers and Valdemar retreated to the other side of the Gudenå river and tore down the bridge.

At the end of September Valdemar felt that he was powerful enough to face Sweyn’s army, and in late October the armies met at Grathe Heath. The battle was short, but vicious. Sweyn failed to locate Valdemar’s main force, and was suddenly attacked in such strength that he fled his army. He blundered into the swampy areas at one end of the Hauge Lake, and lost his weapons and armor. Shortly afterwards, he was captured and killed with an axe, according to tradition, by angry peasants. After his death, Sweyn was nicknamed Grathe, after the place where he lost both his crown and his life. Valdemar, having outlived his rivals, became the sole King of Denmark.

[Ennath]

March 22, 1820
Barron-Decatur Duel

Stephen Decatur, one of the heroes of the early US Navy, was born in 1779 and had a mostly praiseworthy navy career, earning “the heart of a nation” and the malice of a few whose careers he stepped over to achieve his own greatness. One of these was Commodore James Barron. Barron and Decatur had gotten off on the wrong foot in 1806 when the former made a less-than-praiseworthy remark about Decatur’s love life. But things got really unpleasant a year later.

On April 22, 1807, Barron obtained the rank of commodore and was assigned command of the frigate USS Chesapeake. The Chesapeake was berthed at Norfolk and was outfitted for her upcoming mission in great haste with a green crew and equipment that was below standard. Nevertheless, Barron was ordered to set sail as soon as possible. On June 22, off Hampton Roads, HMS Leopard (64) stopped her and ordered the American ship be searched for alleged deserters from the Royal Navy. Barron refused. The Leopard then opened fire, killing 3 crewmen and wounding 18. Caught completely unprepared for battle, Barron surrendered. A British party boarded his ship and took away 4 alleged deserters.

Barron was court martialed for unpreparedness. Decatur headed the board of inquiry that gathered evidence. However, due to a shortage of serving officers in the young navy, he was then called upon to serve as one of the judges at the court martial, thus both prosecuting and judging the same case. Decatur voted against Barron, of course. Barron was sentenced to 5 years suspension without pay while Decatur was given control of Barron’s old ship.

During the War 1812, with his suspension over, Barron asked the Navy repeatedly to accept him back into active service but his requests were denied. He was forced to remain in Denmark, where he was stranded without funds to return to America. Decatur, ignorant of Barron’s reasons for staying in Denmark, referred to him in public as cowardly for staying away from the war. These remarks were heard by Captain Jesse Elliot and relayed to Barron, who was finally able to return to America in 1819. This started a chain of correspondence between Decatur and Barron that would eventually lead to violence.

It might not have gotten that far had not 2 outside parties been very interested in the demise of Stephen Decatur. One was Captain Elliot, who first entered the dispute in 1807, when he testified in defense of Barron during his court martial. But Elliot’s determination that Decatur should die actually had little to do with Barron, but rather with his own long-standing feud with Master Commandant Oliver Perry over Elliot’s conduct at the Battle of Lake Erie (see posting). Elliot was convinced that Decatur had documents from Perry that implicated Elliot in purposeful negligence. Since Perry died of yellow fever in 1819, Elliot turned his hate towards Decatur and attempted to use Barron as a tool to carry out his revenge. He did everything he could to inspire to the two to duel, which they agreed to do in March 1820, and Elliot was named Barron’s second.

The other person that worked toward a fatal ending was Commodore William Bainbridge. This commodore was a friend of Decatur’s until the latter worked against him to receive a valuable posting in the Second Barbary War (1815). Bainbridge was furious and considered Decatur his enemy for years. But then, they seemingly reconciled shortly before the duel. When Decatur was in need of a second, his first choices being ideologically opposed to dueling, Bainbridge stepped forward.

Seconds were men who accompanied the duelists and negotiated the terms of the duel: weapons to be used, conditions (first blood, death, etc.), location, and so on. They were also generally responsible for trying to broker last minute reconciliations. Thus, Elliot and Bainbridge had some level of control over the outcome and it seems that they did what they could to make sure the duel would be deadly. Instead of the usual 10 paces, the duelers were placed 8 paces from each other to make it easier on the near-sighted Barron. Instead of having their pistol by their sides or in the air, the duelers were instructed to aim at each other before the count, increasing the already-high odds of bloodshed. Additionally, right before the duel there was an exchange of words between Barron and Decatur that might have led to reconciliation but the seconds did little to encourage the resolution.

So, at 9:00 on the morning of March 22, 1820, the two commodores commenced their duel at the Bladensburg Dueling Grounds. It was over quickly. After the shots were fired, both men were wounded severely. Afraid of dying, they made their peace with one other. Barron explained his reasons for staying in Denmark (a sense of honor had kept him from expressing it before) and Decatur regretted his careless words. Barron forgave Decatur “from the bottom of his heart” and Decatur returned the sentiment, declaring that he did not fault Barron for his death.

Decatur was brought back to his home and died in “terrible agony” 10 hours later. His funeral was widely attended. His ghost supposedly still haunts Decatur House today. People also claim to hear the piteous weeping of his wife, who spent the rest of her days in anguish, bitterly blaming everyone involved for the “assassination” of her husband.

Elliot bolted after the shots were fired, fearing that both men had died and he might be accused of murder. He had to be brought back and forced into a carriage with the wounded Barron. After the episode, he continued his stormy military career, dying in 1845.

Barron remained in the Navy on shore duty, becoming the Navy’s senior officer in 1839. He died in Norfolk, Virginia, on April 21, 1851.