The Military History Thread

[Ennath]

September 8, 1793
Decision at Hondschoote, Part 2

At daybreak on the 6th, 30,000 republicans erupted from these positions. Hédouville drove the defenders from Poperinge, while on his right Vandamme advanced with little resistance to Proven. They then took Rousbrugge, crossed the Yser and halted at Oost-Capel. On the left flank Landrin came up against severe resistance at Wormhoute. Further still to the left Leclaire (6000) advanced from Bergues but was forced back by Freytag's right.

In the center, Hédouville's column drove the defenders from Houtkerque, where he was soon joined by Houchard with Jourdan's Division. Houchard had planned to join Hédouville via Rousebrugge then march with both columns on Hondschoote, however on the insistence of his staff officer Ernouf he abandoned this plan and instead turned west for Herzeele, sending Colaud to Proven. Jourdan led the assault on Herzeele, which was quickly taken, and, encouraged by this success, Houchard then advance to cross the Yser and capture Bambecque.

Freytag's men withstood the assault bravely despite being vastly outnumbered and the fighting became protracted. Those facing Houchard and Jourdan behind the Yser held out at Bambecque all day, helped by a violent rainstorm. As French ammunition began to run low Jourdan wrote to Houchard to ask if they should halt, to which the Chief of Staff Berthelmy responded “we must conquer at any price; failing cartridges, are there not bayonets?” Eventually at 6.00 PM, Bernadotte's regiment managed to ford the river and the Hanoverians withdrew from Bambecque. With his men exhausted and knowing Hédouville's column had also crossed the river at Oost-Capel, Houchard wished to halt for the night, but Representative Hentz overruled him, announcing “Free men were never too tired to fight the slaves of tyrants; therefore the army should continue its movement”. They pushed on to Rexpoede, which was seized by Jourdan with 3 battalions and a regiment of cavalry.

At 8.00, Freytag ordered a retreat to Hondschoote, sending orders for Wallmoden to join him there. Freytag led his men along the route via Rexpoede, unaware that the town had already fallen to the French, and the head of the column ran straight into the French outposts. After a confused scuffle, Freytag was wounded and captured, together with the future Duke of Cambridge. The latter soon escaped, thanks to the help of his young Aide-de-Camp Scharnhorst, but Freytag remained in French hands until Walmoden, who had suspected his commander could be in danger, arrived with his column at Rexpoede and retook the town, scattering Jourdan’s 3 battalions and almost capturing Houchard in turn. The panic was so severe that some of the French ran all the way back to Cassel.

Walmoden then took command of the whole corps and fell back to Hondschoote, arriving there by 6.00 AM on the 7th. He stationed his left on the village of Leysele, his center in front of the town, and his right on the Bergues canal. His front was covered by a mass of hedges and ditches, the only passage was over a dyke leading into the town of Hondschoote; however despite being a great defensive position it denied the Hanoverians use of their cavalry, in which they greatly outclassed the French.

Houchard attempted to renew the assault, but Jourdan's troops in particular were scattered and utterly demoralized, so his forces were pulled back to the south bank of the Yser to reorganize and re-supply. However to his left Leclaire advanced once more from Bergues and met with Hédouville's column advancing from Oost-Capel. Further north Vandamme with his 4400 men left Proven and advanced on Hondschoote via Rousbrugge and Oost-Capel, only to be driven back to towards Killem by Wallmoden.

As September 8 dawned, Walmoden was at Hondschoote with 13,000 men, faced by the three largely fresh columns of Vandamme, Leclaire and Hédouville, 17,800 men. Behind them lay the spent remnants of Jourdan and Houchard's columns, some 13,000, together with 6000 fresh troops of Landrin. Further away at Bailleul lay 9000 men under Dumesny. Thus Houchard's command was again spread out over a wide front.

Houchard decided to launch a three pronged assault on Hondschoote. On the French left Leclaire’s column was to attack along the canal and the inundation. In the center Houchard personally led the main attack with Jourdan’s Division from Rexpoede flanked on its left by Vandamme and on the right by Colaud's brigade detached from Hédouville's command, in total 20 battalions directly along the dyke covered by artillery. Hédouville was directed to move northwest to Bergues then turn eastward to join the battle at Hondschoote. Landrin was sent to Dunkirk to help pin down the Duke of York. So, of his entire 43,000 men Houchard only utilised some 22,000 for the attack on Walmoden.

This scattering of his forces displayed Houchard’s shortcomings as a commander. Nevertheless, terrain was on the side of the French; the broken ground before Hondschoote was perfectly suited to the French use of loose skirmishers, Jourdan and Vandamme’s men kept up a constant fire from the hedges which the Hanoverians had little answer to. After 4 hours of determined combat, however, the French in the center were making no headway. With the center wavering, Houchard rode out to bring up Colaud's brigade on the right, ordering Jourdan to attack again when he heard the charge sounded. As the French line began crumbling Jourdan brought forward his one remaining reserve battalion, hoping to use it as an anchor to lead an attack. Jourdan was slightly wounded in the chest, but at last Houchard’s signal was heard and the attack went in. Having lost a third of their number, with their left seriously threatened by Hedouville and ammunition running short the Hanoverians were finally forced out of the town. Walmoden withdrew in two disordered columns to Furnes, covered by a Hessian battalion and his cavalry which prevented any French pursuit.

With news of his left flank exposed, the Duke of York gave orders for his heavy baggage to be withdrawn to Furnes, while a Council of War decided to lift the siege of Dunkirk. Souham had rendered the canal unusable for transport, so the heavy siege guns had to be abandoned. At midnight of the 8th, York's corps began withdrawing to Furnes (now Veurne, Belgium), where the next day he rejoined the rest of Walmoden's troops. There was no pursuit by Houchard, so York was able to extricate his command without interference. Part of the reason was that the French were in complete confusion; however Hédouville's troops, who had taken no part in the action were available. Hédouville was in fact sent in pursuit, but halted when he came to a broken bridge. Vandamme was given three cavalry regiments to cross a marsh and pursue York; some baggage was captured but nothing else.

Walmoden had lost 2331 officers and men from his 9000 infantry over the past few days. Jomini suggests the French loss was about the same, but eye-witness Gay de Vernon estimates it as 1800. Despite his triumph, Houchard was seen unsympathetically by the Representatives. Not only were they witnesses to his hesitations, he refused to throw his tired and disorganized men at York’s orderly rearguard, telling the Representative bluntly he was “not a military”. This was to prove fatal, for his failure to pursue York and stumbling command Houchard was later arrested on charges of cowardice, tried and guillotined.

[Ennath]

190 BC
Battle of Myonnesus

By the end of 191 BC, the Seleucid invasion of Greece had been turned back and Rome, along with its allies, Rhodes and Pergamum, was ready to take the offensive in Asia. Lucius Cornelius Scipio, brother of Africanus, was in charge of the campaign and delegated naval affairs to the Praetor Lucius Aemilius Regillus. Regillus would have 95 Roman warships, plus allied contingents and recommissioned captures. These were mostly quinquiremes, with some triremes. The Pergamene fleet included a few of the larger Hellenistic types, sixes or sevens, while the Rhodians, with some 50 ships, preferred lighter threes and fours.

The navy of Seleucid King Antiochos III had spent the winter recovering from the previous year’s setbacks and his admiral Polyxenidas now had nearly 90 ships, including two sevens and three sixes, at Ephesus. Hannibal Barca, the exiled Carthaginian, was raising another fleet in the Levant. Obviously, a Roman priority would be to keep the two fleets from uniting. The allies had spent the winter keeping Polyxenidas bottled up; if they moved off to deal with Hannibal, then Polyxenidas could slip by them to join his ally or seize the Hellespont. This left the Rhodians to deal with Hannibal on their own. Despite this, in March 190 BC, 30 Roman and 7 Pergamene ships were dispatched to deal with some hostile naval activity in the Hellespont, which could have prevented any Roman crossing into Asia. This squadron soon secured the area and returned to the main fleet before the Seleucids could take advantage of its absence.

In April, Polyxenidas managed to slip out of harbor and fell upon a Rhodian squadron of 27 ships which had come too close just south of Ephesus, out of contact with its allies to the north. The Seleucids landed a force to threaten the Rhodian anchorage, forcing them to sail out and engage. Polyxenidas was waiting and pounced as the Rhodians emerged piecemeal from the narrow entrance. Seven Rhodians broke through by suspending braziers of burning material on long booms on either side of their bows; the other 20 were lost or captured.

Regillus was now forced to return to the blockade of Ephesus. Anticipating this, Polyxenidas sailed north, hoping to find a suitable promontory to hide behind and ambush the Romans as they passed, but poor weather forced both fleets back to their bases. Meanwhile, Antiochos was moving against Pergamum and its King Eumenes II withdrew his fleet to help defend his kingdom. Pergamum was relieved by the arrival of Achaean troops from Greece, but it was decided that the Roman and Rhodian fleets should watch Polyxenidas, while the Pergamene fleet should proceed to the Hellespont to cover the crossing of the Roman army.

In June, the allies learned that Hannibal had sailed with 47 ships, including three sevens and four sixes, from Phoenicia and was heading west along the Cilician coast. The Rhodians concentrated 36 ships to intercept and met the new fleet off Side. Hannibal should have stayed on land. Despite being outnumbered, the Rhodians were faster and had better crews and captains and Hannibal was compelled to retreat. Although he lost only 1 ship, a seven, about a dozen more were damaged and disabled. Hannibal made no further move west; the link-up of the two fleets never took place.

By October, allied naval strength was reduced, some ships having been sent to the Hellespont, as well as through the natural attrition of the long blockade. The fleet off Ephesus now numbered 58 Roman ships, under Regillus, and 22 Rhodians, under Eudamos. The Seleucids had not been idle and new construction had increased their strength to 89 ships. Polyxenidas was therefore ordered to break out and attack.

After attempting to stalk the Roman fleet, Polyxenidas just failed to catch it in harbor, the allies managing to man their ships and get to sea in time; the fleets met off Myonnesus. Polyxenidas extended his line to enable his superior numbers to envelop the Roman right, which was furthest out to sea. To counter this, Eudamos led most of his Rhodians to protect the flank and harry the Seleucid left, while the Romans broke the center.

The battle developed into two distinct areas. In the center, the Roman shipboard infantry fought methodically, overcoming one enemy ship, then moving on to the next and repeating the process. Out to sea, the Rhodians used their swift, handy ships to attack with the ram and missile fire and possibly even the threat of their fire braziers, while avoiding becoming entangled with the enemy. The also managed to frustrate the Seleucid flanking effort, allowing the Romans to get on with doing what they did best. Before long, Polyxenidas’ left (offshore) wing was in retreat from the Rhodians and the survivors of the center and right soon followed, back to the haven at Ephesus. Polyxenidas lost 13 ships sunk or burned and another 29 captured, nearly half his fleet. The Roans lost 2 ships, with several more damaged, and the Rhodians one.

Rome and her allies now controlled the Aegean and the coasts of Asia Minor. Antiochos managed to evacuate Thrace, but could not stop the Romans from crossing safely into Asia. Once across, they proceeded south along the coast, where the navy could support and supply them. Finally, they brought Antiochos’ army to battle at Magnesia in December and destroyed his army in the war’s decisive action.

[Ennath]

September 9, 1513
Battle of Flodden, Part 1

In 1502, James IV of Scotland married Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII, King of England. This marriage assisted in keeping the peace between the two countries, although James IV made the mistake of supporting the pretender Perkin Warbeck, in his claim to the English throne as one of the Princes in the Tower, against Henry VII. James stood by the “Auld Alliance” between Scotland and France, but declined to be drawn into a war with England for much of his reign.

In 1509, Henry VII died and was succeeded by the bombastic and difficult Henry VIII. Initially James IV managed to avoid any substantial problem with the new king and, although there were minor disputes: Henry refused to deliver the jewels Henry VII bequeathed to his daughter Margaret, and English ships attacked and killed Sir Andrew Barton, one of James IV’s favored captains, on the pretext that he was a pirate.

In 1511, Henry VIII joined the Holy League against France, with the Pope, Emperor Maximilian, Spain and Venice. England would soon be at war, precipitating a crisis with Scotland. In 1512, James formally renewed the Auld Alliance. If England attacked France, Scotland would be required to fight alongside France. In early 1513, James formally offered peace to Henry VIII, provided he did not attack France. This proposal was rejected by Henry. A French envoy, La Motte, came to the Scottish court, bringing wine, gun powder and other munitions, together with some English ships he captured on his journey. The French Queen, Anne of Brittany, sent James 14,000 crowns and a ring of gold and turquoise with a letter couched as if to a lover, imploring James IV to be her ‘true knight’ and to invade England, if England attacked France.

The concerns of the French court were justified, as, in June 1513, King Henry, with a large army, invaded France. In compliance with his treaty obligations, King James prepared to invade England. James’ Queen and nobles were deeply worried and urged James not to take such a drastic step.

In a final attempt to avoid war with England, James, on July 26, sent his Lyon King of Arms to Henry VIII, requiring him to withdraw from France. Henry sent back a bombastic and dismissive reply, which did not reach King James before the Battle of Flodden. To his worried nobles, King James said that Henry was gone to France with all England’s soldiers, leaving no one behind capable of defending the country. James pressed ahead with plans to invade England, summoning all Scots liable for military service to gather at Edinburgh.

King Henry was fully aware that the Scots were likely to invade. Before leaving for France, Henry said to the Earl of Surrey, when appointing him Lord Lieutenant of the North, “My Lord, I trust not the Scots, therefore I pray you be not negligent.” Surrey was 69, and showed himself far from negligent.

James’ intention was a limited attack, to compel Henry to give up the invasion of France and return to England. It may be that James expected the English would be unable to raise an army sufficient to resist him, and that there would be little opposition to his operation. The Scottish Army began to gather at Edinburgh in August 1513. A French contingent, commanded by the Comte D’Aussi, provided training to the Scottish soldiers in the long 5 yard pike. It is said that the army the King gathered was the largest and best equipped army ever to leave Scotland for an invasion of England. Estimates for the size of the army that left Edinburgh range between 30,000 and 40,000 men. It is clear that the army was quickly affected by desertion, particularly once there had been an opportunity to gather loot.

In early August, English Borderers carried out a raid into Scotland. Choosing not to wait for his King, Alexander, Lord Home, who held the posts of Warden of the Marches and Chamberlain of Scotland, gathered a force of some 3000 Border horse and carried out a retaliatory raid into England. Home was returning with substantial booty, when, on August 13, he was ambushed at Milfield, by Sir William Bulmer, whose archers killed some 400 Scots, took 200 prisoners, and put the rest to flight. The English recovered all the booty and Home’s foray was labeled by the Scots the ‘Ill Raid’.

On August 22, King James crossed the Tweed at Coldstream; his men soon burned the fortress of Norham on Tweed and the Tillside castles of Ford and Etal. James made Ford Castle, home of the Lords Heron, his battle headquarters. For a number of days the king remained at Ford while his men rested. During this time the king is said to have been fully occupied by the amorous attentions of Lady Heron. Whatever the King's battle intentions may have been at Ford, his actions so far had amounted to little more than a large scale border raid. In fact many of his men had already returned home to Scotland with booty of English goods and livestock.

Meanwhile, the English were busy preparing for battle. Surrey mustered forces in London and marched north to Pontefact, where he held a Council of War. Here he was joined by the fighting men of Cheshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire. From here he marched on to Durham where he prayed before the shrine of St Cuthbert in the Cathedral and collected the sacred banner of the saint, which was always good for morale in time of war. Surrey then continued north to Newcastle, where he was joined by the men of Northumberland and Durham, including the retainers of Percy, Lord Dacre, the Bishop of Durham and of William Bulmer of Brancepeth.

By this time King James had moved from Ford Castle and crossed to the western side of the River Till where he set up camp on Flodden Hill. The English sent a messenger challenging the Scots to meet them in battle on Milfield Plain north of Wooler, but the Scots refused as they were not willing to vacate their advantageous position. For the time being at least, they remained where they were. By this stage the English and Scottish forces were roughly equal, with around 30,000 men each.

On the following drizzly morning of Friday, September 9, the English in two parties made their way north, along the eastern flank of the Till. The rearguard crossed the river by a ford at Heaton Castle (now gone), the vanguard crossed further north at Twizell Bridge. Surrey’s army was suffering badly from shortage of provisions. There had been little time to assemble supplies, and reliance was placed on foraging. But the presence of a large Scots army had ensured that there was little local produce left for the English army. It is said that, by now, the only commodity available for the English was water.

[Ennath]

September 9, 1513
Battle of Flodden, Part 2

Although king James could clearly see the movements of the English as they crossed the Till, he decided against attacking at this early stage, when the enemy was at its most vulnerable. Instead James ordered the burning of camp refuse, creating a dense wall of smoke, which temporarily blocked the English view of his movements. When the smoke finally cleared the entire Scottish army had moved their position northward from Flodden Hill to the adjacent Branxton Hill. It was an important move by James, since the English could well have planned to occupy Branxton Hill, but now all that lay between them and he Scots was flatter land. This meant that the English would have to fight their way uphill, the Scots had the advantage of being able to charge down the slope.

Before the English could 0get anywhere near the Scots they had to cross one major obstacle, a large marshy area formed by the Pallinsburn, a tributary of the Till. James thought this would hold the English up and tire them out but he was mistaken; the English had men with knowledge of the local countryside and the mossy area was quickly negotiated by means of the Branxton Bridge, a feature unknown to King James. The English began to assemble in a field at the foot of Branxton Hill with the Scots looking down upon them.

The time was 4:00 PM, when the Scots opened fire on the English, who looked so vulnerable down below. The battle commenced. Almost immediately the inexperience of the Scottish gunners became apparent. Unable to handle their cumbersome artillery the Scots were missing their targets while the English fired back with much greater precision, until gradually the Scottish guns and crews were silenced.

James was quick to react, he noticed a weakness in the right wing of the English army, a section of mainly Lancashire and Cheshire men under Edmund Howard, whose men looked rather disorganized, hungry and a long way from home. Howard’s men were supposed to have been backed up by a reserve of borderers under Lord Dacre, but these men seemed to have fled the scene. James ordered the Scottish left, composed mainly of Scottish borderers, under the leadership of Lord Home, to attack this English “weak point”. Home's men obliged and went charging down the hill, causing most of Howard’s men to flee. Those who remained were slaughtered. Fortunately for the English, Lord Dacre and his English borderers reappeared, rescued Howard and engaged in a battle with their Scottish counterparts. John Heron and his men gave added support. Meanwhile the remainder of the English right wing, under the leadership of Surrey’s eldest son, the Lord Admiral, now came under attack from the Scottish section led by Lords Crawford and Errol.

King James was impatient to get involved. In a moment of irrational impulse he wildly led his center charging down the hill towards the English center commanded by the Earl of Surrey. At the base of the hill the Scottish charge was considerably slowed and almost brought to a halt by an unexpected ridge and boggy area. This was a stroke of luck for the English, for it meant that the Scottish charge had lost is momentum. A fierce battle now began at the base of the hill. James’ decision to fight the battle on foot was intended to inspire his men. This heroic but misguided act deprived the Scots army of a hard core of mounted men, and rendered the King’s party vulnerable, floundering through the mud in their heavy amour. In addition, the commanders could not exercise proper control of their troops, when on foot. The long pikes carried by many of the Scots soldiers, proved a significant disadvantage. These unwieldy implements were not suitable for fighting in broken country, and there had been insufficient time for the Scots to become proficient in their use. The English soldiers used their shorter bills to cut the pikes, and their handlers, to pieces.

Now only the Scottish right wing and English left wings were not engaged. This time the English took the initiative with Edward Stanley marching his men up Branxton Hill towards the Scots at the top. Here the Scots army was comprised of highland clansmen, under the leadership of the Earls Lennox and Argyle, but Stanley's skilled fighting men were too much for the highlanders. Some fled, while others including the chiefs of the Campbells and the McCleans, who remained, were slain.

With the collapse of the Scottish right, Stanley reformed his column, and attacked the rear of the Scottish center at the base of the hill. By this time, after 2 hours of grueling hand to hand struggle, King James and many of his soldiers were dead. Those Scots who could get away, retreated north. They continued to fight the English, as they withdrew into Scotland, and several English knights were taken by the Scots during this retreat. Lord Home appeared the following morning, but was driven away by the English, who were left in command of the field.

Reports of casualties at Flodden differ widely. It may be that around 10,000 Scots were killed, and perhaps as few as 1500 English. The boggy conditions, where much of the Scots army was trapped during the final attacks, led to many Scots being slaughtered, as they were no longer able to defend themselves or to get away. The King’s decision to fight on foot effectively prevented any of the nobility from escaping the rout. The effect of Flodden was to wipe out much of the Scottish nobility, from the King down. Among the Scots dead were: the Archbishop of St Andrews, the king’s natural son, the Bishops of Caithness and the Isles, the Grand Prior of the Knights of St John, the Abbot of Inchaffray, the Dean of Glasgow, 12 earls, 10 lords, 113 knights and a large number of family heads and clan chiefs.

The result of the battle was terrible confusion in Scotland. The governing dynasty at every level, and in every area of life, was largely eliminated. The harvest was temporarily abandoned, as Scotland gave itself up to grief. A wave of transactions arose from the death of so many land owners. Special dispensations from feudal dues were applicable for those who had died in battle following the king, in accordance with an edict issued by King James, before crossing the English border.

Queen Margaret married the Earl of Angus, to protect the succession of her young son, who became James V. A struggle ensued between the Earl of Arran and the Earl of Angus, as to who should be Regent during the king’s minority, leading to fighting between their supporters in the streets of Edinburgh. Queen Margaret fled to Stirling Castle with her 2 young sons. The defeat at Flodden ensured that there was no significant fighting between England and Scotland for some 30 years.

[Ennath]

September 10, 1561
4th Battle of Kawanakajima

In 1553 an intense power struggle began between the Takeda clan of Kai Province, under the leadership of Takeda Shingen, and the Murakami and Nagao clans of Echigo Province, under Uesugi Kenshin. This conflict resulted in a long-standing military rivalry between these two daimyo that lasted until 1564. In 1547, Shingen led the Takeda clan on an invasion of Shinano Province, a rich territory that lay between the western border of Kai and the southern border of Echigo Province. In lieu of being destroyed by the powerful Takeda army, some of the Shinano daimyo, such as the Sanada, submitted and became Shingen’s vassals. Many of the other Shinano daimyo were determined to resist the invaders, the most noted of these being Murakami Yoshikiyo. In 1548 Shingen defeated Murakami in a bloody battle at Ueda-hara. Realizing that he could not withstand Shingen’s power alone, Murakami appealed for aid from his northern neighbor, Uesugi Kenshin, Lord of Echigo Province. Kenshin agreed to give his assistance, and with this alliance the two powerful clans of Takeda and Uesugi were brought into direct conflict.

In the far northern reaches of Shinano Province, located deep in the heart of the mountain range known as the Japan Alps, lay the wide, flat, triangle-shaped plain of Kawanakajima. Known as “the island between the rivers,” because it was bordered on the north by the Saigawa River and on the southwest by the Chikumagawa River which join at the northeast corner of the plain, Kawanakajima became the “no man’s land” in the duel between Shingen and Kenshin. During the course of their struggle this plain would witness no less than seven encounters between these rivals, of which only five were considered “battles.” The first three of these were only preliminary skirmishes compared to the fourth, which is considered the Battle of Kawanakajima, and remains one of the largest and bloodiest conflicts in Japanese history.

In September 1553, Shingen advanced far to the north of Shinano Province, reaching the Kawanakajima plain. Here, near a Hachiman shrine, he met Kenshin’s army, but refused battle and withdrew. The two armies came into contact a few miles farther north, but again disengaged from each other. This was the 1st Battle of Kawanakajima, also known as “The Battle of Fuse.” In October, as Shingen was withdrawing from the area, Kenshin attacked near the site of the Hachiman shrine and defeated the Takeda army.

The 2nd Battle of Kawanakajima, also known as the Battle of the Saigawa, took place in 1555. Shingen advanced across the Kawanakajima plain to the Saigawa River and made his camp on the Otsuka hill, just south of the river. Kenshin’s army moved from their hill positions down to the river and camped on the opposite bank. For four months the two armies sat facing one another, each waiting for the other to make the first move. Eventually, faced with political unrest among their allies, both armies withdrew.

The 3rd Battle of Kawanakajima took place in 1557. Shingen again advanced onto the plain and captured Katsurayama, a mountain fortress deep in Uesugi territory. He then attacked Iiyama Castle, which lay along a major road into Echigo and northeast of the Zenko-ji, a hilltop position with a dominant view of the entire plain. Kenshin, whose army was based in Zenko-ji Castle, responded by launching a sortie to relieve Iiyama Castle. Shingen promptly withdrew, once again avoiding a major battle with his enemy.

In September 1561, the two armies engaged in the 4th Battle of Kawanakajima. Kenshin, weary of the sparring with Shingen, resolved to destroy his archrival in one last decisive battle, and marched his army of 18,000 toward the northwestern periphery of Takeda territory. His objective was Kaizu Castle, which controlled Takeda communications north onto the plain of Kawanakajima and south of the plain through the vital mountain passes. Crossing the Saigawa and Chikumagawa Rivers, which enclose Kawanakajima, Kenshin took up a fortified position on Saijoyama Mountain overlooking Kaizu Castle. The 150 samurai and their followers who garrisoned Kaizu, although thoroughly surprised by this move, managed, through a system of well-organized signal fires, to alert Shingen to the danger. Shingen reacted quickly and moved toward Kaizu with 16,000 men.

Shingen camped on the west bank of the Chikumagawa near the Amenomiya ford. Kenshin had hoped to be in a position to fall on his enemy upon the latter’s arrival, but with the river between them a stalemate ensued. An element of surprise was needed to throw one side off balance if the other were to succeed. Shingen moved first, quickly crossing the Chikumagawa beneath Kenshin’s positions and moving his entire force, increased by reinforcements to 20,000, into Kaizu Castle.

Shingen’s force would not remain there long, however, because his gunbugyo (army magistrate), Yamamoto Kansuke, had devised a plan known as Operation Woodpecker. A “woodpecker” force of 8000 men would climb Saijoyama under cover of night and “tap” Kenshin’s rear, driving the enemy “bugs” out of their positions, down the mountain, and across the Chikumagawa onto the Hachimanabara, or “War God Plain,” below. Here, Shingen’s main body, having also crossed the Chikumagawa by night, would be waiting for them. The formation Shingen chose for his main body was the kakuyoku, or “crane’s wing,” which was considered to be the best formation for surrounding an enemy. Driven by the attack against his rear into the arms of the “crane’s wing,” Kenshin would be caught between two forces, surrounded, and destroyed.

Shingen set up his headquarters in the center of the Hachiman Plain, somewhere in the rear of the samurai wings. This command post consisted of a maku, or cloth curtains, bearing the Takeda mon, or clan badge, making it easily identifiable. From this position he waited for his plan to be put into motion.

As dawn broke the next day, Shingen’s troops, peering through the dispersing mist, were met by the sight of Kenshin’s army not fleeing across their front, as planned, but charging head on toward them. Kenshin, having received reports of Shingen’s movements, had guessed what his rival’s plan might be and had planned a counter. Using the cover of night as had his enemy, Kenshin had moved his army in total secrecy across the Amenomiya Ford, leaving a 3000-man rear guard to protect the ford, and deployed somewhat west of Shingen’s position. Adopting a formation known as kuruma gakari, or “winding wheel,” Kenshin crashed violently into Shingen’s “crane.” The winding wheel was an offensive maneuver allowing units that had become exhausted or depleted to be replaced with a fresh unit, thus enabling the attacker to maintain the force and momentum of the attack.

Kenshin’s leading units were mounted samurai, and as the “wheel” wound on, the pressure on Shingen’s force began to tell as unit after unit was driven back. Shingen’s “crane” was an offensive formation and not designed for the defense, but the troops executing it were well disciplined and the army was managing to hold its own. Realizing that his well-laid plans had failed, Yamamoto Kansuke accepted responsibility for the disaster in true samurai fashion. Charging alone with a spear into the midst of the enemy he fought valiantly until overcome by some 80 wounds, whereupon he retired to a grassy knoll and committed seppuku.

The momentum of the “wheel” had now brought it within reach of the Takeda HQ where Shingen had been fervently trying to control his hard-pressed army. The Uesugi samurai clashed head on with Shingen’s personal bodyguard, wounding his son Takeda Yoshinobu. A single, mounted samurai then crashed through and Shingen found himself personally attacked by none other than Kenshin himself. Unable to draw his sword, Shingen, rising from his camp stool, was forced to parry Kenshin’s mounted sword strokes with his heavy wooden war fan. Shingen took 3 cuts on his body armor and a further 7 on his war fan until one of his bodyguards attacked Kenshin with a spear. The spear thrust glanced off Kenshin’s armor and struck his horse’s flank, causing the animal to rear. Several other samurai of Shingen’s guard then arrived and together they managed to drive Kenshin off.

Shingen was slowly being driven back on the Chikumagawa and his best samurai were falling, but despite the fierceness of the constantly rotating attacks the army had not yet broken. Just as Kenshin seemed assured of victory he was suddenly surprised by a desperate attack against his rear. The Takeda “woodpecker” force, having found the enemy positions on Saijoyama deserted and hearing the noise of battle below, had moved down to the Amenomiya Ford. Here they engaged Kenshin’s rear guard in the fiercest fighting of the day, driving them back and crossing the river to assault Kenshin’s rear. Kenshin was thus caught between the pincers of the Takeda attack, just as the late Yamamoto Kansuke had planned. Shingen managed to regain control of his army and by midday what had seemed an inglorious defeat had been turned into a great victory. Shingen’s army, exhausted from the battle, did not attempt to pursue Kenshin’s retreat. The following day, under a truce, some of Kenshin’s generals burned what was left of their encampment on Saijoyama while the rest of the army moved back across the Saigawa and headed for home.

Kawanakajima had been a costly battle for both sides. Kenshin had lost roughly 12,960 men, while Shingen lost 12,400 men. In one of the largest battles ever fought in Japanese history, the “crane’s wing” formation, when executed by well-disciplined troops, had proven itself capable of stopping, at least temporarily, that of the “winding wheel.”

In September 1564 the two rivals met again for the 5th and final battle at Kawanakajima. Facing each other across the Saigawa River the respective armies sat in their positions for 60 days, engaging in only minor skirmishing, before finally withdrawing.

[Ennath]

43
Claudius’ Invasion of Britain

In common with other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had enjoyed diplomatic and trading links with the Romans in the century since Julius Caesar’s expeditions in 55-54 BC (see posting), and Roman economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age, especially in the south. The status quo of tribute, hostages, and client states without direct military occupation, begun by Caesar, largely remained intact. Trade flourished, and it is suggested that some Celtic princes were sent to Rome to be educated.

By the 40’s AD, the political situation within Britain was apparently in ferment. The Catuvellauni had displaced the Trinovantes as the most powerful kingdom in the southeast, taking over the former Trinovantian capital of Camulodunum (Colchester), and were pressing their neighbors the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Caesar’s former ally Commius. Kingship had become hereditary, rather than a post awarded to the best war leader. This change was to have disastrous consequences; several princes fled to Rome to appeal for help in succession squabbles.

Caligula planned a campaign against the Britons in 40, but its execution was bizarre: according to Suetonius’ The Twelve Caesars, he drew up his troops in battle formation facing the English Channel and ordered them to attack the standing water, declaring war on Neptune. Afterwards, he had the troops gather seashells, referring to them as “plunder from the ocean due to the Capitol and the Palace”.

In 41, Claudius became Emperor of Rome on the murder of Caligula. Needing a public relations coup to secure his tenuous position he decided to revive the plan to expand the Empire to the British Isles. The pretext was conveniently provided by Caratacus, king of the Catavellauni. Caratacus invaded the territories of the Atrebates, whose king, Verica, fled to Rome and appealed for help. Claudius was happy to respond. In 43, Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator, was given overall charge of four legions (II Augusta, IX Hispana, XIV Gemina and XX Valeria Victrix), totaling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of auxiliaries. The II Augusta is known to have been commanded by the future emperor Vespasian.

The main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to have been Boulogne, and the main landing at Rutupiae (Richborough, on the east coast of Kent). British resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni, Cunobeline. but was slow to react and the Romans were able to consolidate before moving. The Britons had little choice but to allow the invaders into their lands, until such time as an appropriate force could be gathered. Tribal divisions and diverse loyalties made resistance difficult. While many opposed Rome, leadership squabbles made a unified front difficult to achieve. Other less influential tribes welcomed Roman arrival, in the belief that doing so would increase their own power. Aulus Plautius would make his campaign one of divide and conquer, much like Caesar had done in Gaul a century earlier.

The first major battle of the campaign took place on the shores of the Medway (though some contend that it may have been the Arun) near Rochester. Caratacus and Togodumnus gathered a considerable force to hold the crossings. In a battle that reportedly lasted two days, where Batavian auxilia, who swam the river to surprise the British rear, played a vital role, the British forces were eventually forced to retreat back to the Thames. They were pursued by the Romans across the river causing some Roman losses in the marshes of Essex. Whether the Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain. Togodumnus died shortly after this battle.

Plautius now halted and sent word for Claudius to join him for the final push. Dio presents this as Plautius needing assistance to defeat the resurgent British, who were determined to avenge Togodumnus. However, Claudius was no military man. Regardless, Caludius eventually arrived and took command, bringing up to 38 war elephants with him, as well as heavy artillery and (some evidence suggests) detachments of the VIII Legion. Claudius’ arch says he received the surrender of 11 kings without any loss, and Suetonius says that Claudius received the surrender of the Britons without battle or bloodshed. It is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to appear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. The Romans established their new capital here and Claudius, after only 16 days in Britain, returned to Rome after where he celebrated a grand triumph, received the title Britannicus, and left his generals in Britain to complete the conquest. Caratacus escaped to modern Wales and would continue the resistance.

In 44-45, Vespasian took a force westwards, subduing tribes and capturing oppida (hill forts) as he went, going at least as far as Exeter which would appear to have become an early base for II Augusta and probably reaching Bodmin. The most famous episode of this campaign was the capture of Maiden Fort in Dorset. IX Hispana was sent north towards Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) and within 4 years of the invasion it is likely that an area south of a line from the Humber to the Severn Estuary was under Roman control. That this line is followed by the Roman road of the Fosse Way has led many historians to debate the route's role as a convenient frontier during the early occupation. It is more likely that the border between Roman and Celtic Britain was less direct and more mutable during this period.

Late in 47 the new governor of Britain, Publius Ostorius Scapula, began a campaign against the tribes of Wales and the Cheshire Gap. The Silures of southeast Wales caused considerable problems and fiercely defended the border country. In 50, Caratacus was brought to battle at Caer Caradoc. Caratacus chose a battlefield in hilly country, placing his army on the higher ground. His forces were probably primarily made up of warriors from the Ordovices though there may have been some Silures as well. This position made both approach and retreat difficult for the Romans, and comparatively easy for his own forces. Where the slope was shallow, he built rough stone ramparts, and placed armed men in front of them. In front of them was a river, probably the Severn or Teme. Scapula was reluctant to attack, but the enthusiasm of his men won him over. The river was crossed without difficulty. The Romans came under a rain of missiles, but employed the testudo in response and dismantled the stone ramparts. Once inside the defenses, they broke through; the Britons withdrew to the hilltops, but the Romans kept up the pursuit. The British broke, and they were caught between the legionaries and the auxilia. Caratacus’ wife, son, and daughter were captured and his brother surrendered, but Caratacus himself escaped. He fled north, seeking refuge among the Brigantes. The Brigantian queen, Cartimandua, however, was a Roman client and handed him over in chains. He gave a speech in Rome which persuaded the emperor to spare him and his family. Scapula was awarded triumphal ornaments.

Scalupa soon died and was replaced by Aulus Didius Gallus who brought the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because Claudius was keen to avoid what he considered a difficult and drawn-out war for little material gain in the hilly terrain of upland Britain. When Nero became emperor in 54, he seems to have decided to continue the invasion and appointed Quintus Veranius as governor, a man experienced in dealing with the troublesome hill tribes of Anatolia. Veranius and his successor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus mounted a successful campaign across Wales, famously destroying the druid centre at Mona or Anglesey in AD 60. Final occupation of Wales was postponed however when the rebellion of Boudica forced the Romans to return to the southeast (see posting).

Following the suppression of Boudica’s revolt, the Romans continued the conquest by edging north. Cartimandua was forced to ask for Roman aid following a rebellion by her husband Venutius. Quintus Petillius Cerialis took his legions from Lincoln as far as York and defeated Venutius near Stanwick around 70. This resulted in the already Romanized Brigantes and Parisii being further assimilated. Frontinus was sent to Britain in 74 to succeed Cerialis. He subdued the Silures and other hostile tribes of Wales, establishing a new base at Caerleon for II Augusta and a network of smaller forts for his auxiliary units. By the time he retired in 78, the southern Britons were all but subdued. Only Caledonia in the north remained unconquered.

[Ennath]

September 11, 1297
Battle of Stirling Bridge

By August 1297, Scots rebels under Andrew de Moray and William Wallace controlled almost all of Scotland north of the Forth, except for Dundee. The Earl of Surrey and Hugh de Cressingham marched north with an army of 9000 from Berwick to relieve Dundee. Having defeated a relatively disorganized Scottish army the year before at the Battle of Dunbar, English confidence was high and Surrey was expecting a short campaign.

The Scottish army, about 6000 strong and more disciplined than their predecessors, occupied the flat ground to the north of Stirling Bridge, the key entry point to the north of Scotland. The Scots encamped on Abbey Craig which dominated the soft, flat ground north of the river.

The earl arrived at the narrow, wooden bridge over the Forth near Stirling Castle and delayed crossing for several days to allow for negotiations. The English force of English, Welsh and Scots knights, bowmen and foot soldiers camped to the south of the river. Sir Richard Lundie, a former Scottish knight, offered to outflank the enemy by leading a cavalry force over a ford two miles upstream, where 60 horsemen could cross at the same time. Hugh Cressingham, King Edward’s treasurer in Scotland, persuaded Surrey to reject this advice and order a direct attack across the bridge. Cressingham wished to avoid the expense of a long campaign and sought to avoid any actions that would cause delay. On September 10, Surrey gave orders to cross the river the next day.

At dawn on September 11, the English and Welsh infantry started to cross only to be recalled due to the fact that the earl had overslept. Later in the day, Surrey's infantry and cavalry began crossing the bridge again. The small bridge was only broad enough to allow 2 horsemen to cross abreast, but offered the safest river crossing as the Forth widened to the east and the marshland of Flanders Moss lay to the west. Watching this, Wallace and Moray restrained their troops until a sizable, but defeatable, English force had reached the north shore.

When a substantial number of the troops had crossed (possibly about 2000), the Scots attacked. Their spearmen came down from the high ground in a rapid advance and fended off a charge by the English heavy cavalry before counterattacking the English infantry. They gained control of the east side of the narrow bridge, and cut off the chance of English reinforcements crossing. Caught on the low ground in the loop of the river with no chance of relief or of retreat, most of the outnumbered English on the east side were probably killed, including Cressingham. A few hundred may have escaped by swimming across the river. One English knight, Sir Marmaduke Tweng, managed to fight his way back across the bridge to the English lines.

Surrey, who was left with a pitiful contingent of archers, was still in a strong position south of the bridge. The bulk of his army remained intact and he could have held the line of the Forth, denying the triumphant Scots a passage to the south, but his confidence was gone. Surrey ordered the bridge's destruction and retreated towards Berwick, leaving the garrison at Stirling Castle isolated and abandoning the Lowlands to the rebels. James Stewart, the High Steward of Scotland, and Malcolm, Earl of Lennox, whose forces had been part of Surrey's army, withdrew their men and joined the rebels. The English supply train was then attacked at The Pows, a wooded marshy area, by Stewart and the other Scots lords, killing many of the fleeing soldiers.

Scottish casualties at the Battle of Stirling Bridge were not recorded, however they are believed to have been relatively light, with the exception of Andrew de Moray. He appears to have been wounded in the battle and died of his injuries around November. Contemporary English chronicler Walter of Guisborough recorded the English losses as 100 cavalry and 5000 infantry killed or wounded. Hugh Cressingham’s body was reportedly subsequently flayed and the skin cut into small pieces for souvenirs and a baldrick for Wallace’s sword.

Wallace went on to lead a destructive raid into northern England which did little to advance the Scots objectives; however the raids frightened the English army and stalled their advance. By March 1298 he had emerged as Guardian of Scotland. His glory was brief, for King Edward himself was coming north from Flanders. The two men finally met on the field of Falkirk in the summer of 1298, where Wallace was defeated (see posting).

[Rogerbh]

Millennium Challenge 2002* I only just heard about this.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Challenge_2002
http://warontherocks.com/2015/11/mil...nd-its-legacy/

A pretty interesting event - a War Game between either IRAN or IRAQ and the US. The US Fleet got plastered. After that the US Fleet was "refloated" and the fix was in.

Van Riper seems like an interesting leader.

I wonder if anyone has some insights on this event?

[rupertramjet]

Well I know whose command I would have preferred to be under in a real war! Trouble with war is it don't read! Scripts go out the window. This was to my mind a massive waste of US public money! There is no point training military personnel in a scenario that they know, military personnel need to think and react in the moment, if they can not do that they might as well stay in the bar!

[Ennath]

September 12, 1213
Battle of Muret

By the 12th century, organized groups of dissidents, such as the Waldensians and Cathars, were beginning to appear in the towns and cities of newly urbanized areas. In southwestern France, one of the most urbanized areas of Europe at the time, the Cathars grew to represent a popular mass movement, and the belief was spreading to other areas. Relatively few believers became full Cathars, but the movement attracted many followers and sympathizers.

The theology of the Cathars was dualistic, a belief in two equal and comparable transcendental principles; God, the force of good, and Satan, the demiurge of evil. They held that the physical world was evil and created by this demiurge, which they called Rex Mundi (“King of the World”), who encompassed all that was corporeal, chaotic and powerful. The Cathars viewed God as being of pure spirit and completely unsullied by the taint of matter. Jesus was an angel with only a phantom body, and the accounts in the New Testament were to be understood allegorically. As the physical world and the human body were the creation of the evil principle, sexual abstinence (even in marriage) was encouraged. Civil authority had no claim on a Cathar, since this was the rule of the physical world.

Cathar theology found its greatest success in the Languedoc. The Cathars were known as Albigensians because of their association with the city of Albi, and because the 1176 Church Council which declared the Cathar doctrine heretical was held near Albi. Before the crusade there was little fighting in the area and a fairly sophisticated polity. Southwestern France itself was at that time divided between the Crown of Aragon and the county of Toulouse.

On becoming Pope in 1198, Innocent III resolved to deal with the Cathars and sent a delegation of friars to Languedoc to assess the situation. The Cathars were seen as not showing proper respect for the authority of the French king or the local Catholic Church, and their leaders were being protected by powerful nobles, who had clear interest in independence from the king. One of the most powerful, Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, openly supported the Cathars and their independence movement and refused to assist the delegation. He was excommunicated in May 1207 and an interdict was placed on his lands. The senior papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau, seen as responsible for these actions, was killed and his death was attributed to supporters of the count. This brought down more penalties on Count Raymond, but he soon agreed to reconcile with the Church and the excommunication was lifted. At the Council of Avignon (1209) Raymond was again excommunicated for not fulfilling the conditions of reconciliation. King Philip II of France decided to act against those nobles who permitted Catharism within their lands and undermined secular authority.

By mid-1209, around 10,000 crusaders had gathered in Lyon, mainly from the Ile de France and the north of France. In June, Raymond of Toulouse, recognizing the disaster at hand, finally promised to act against the Cathars, and his excommunication was lifted. The crusaders turned towards Montpellier and the lands of Raymond-Roger de Trencavel, aiming for the Cathar communities around Albi and Carcassonne. Like Raymond, Raymond-Roger sought an accommodation with the crusaders, but he was refused a meeting and raced back to Carcassonne to prepare his defenses.

The crusaders headed for Béziers, arriving on July 21. Under the command of the papal legate, Arnaud-Amaury, they laid siege, calling on the Catholics to come out, and demanding that the Cathars surrender. Both groups refused. The city fell the following day when an abortive sortie was pursued back through the open gates. The entire population was slaughtered and the city burned to the ground. Contemporary sources give estimates of the number of dead ranging between 15,000 and 20,000. The news of the disaster quickly spread and afterwards many settlements surrendered without a fight. The next major target was Carcassonne, which surrendered on August 15. The people were not killed, but were forced to leave the town, naked according to Peter of les Vaux-de-Cernay. Simon de Montfort was then appointed leader of the crusader army, and was granted control of the area encompassing Carcassonne, Albi, and Béziers. After the fall of Carcassonne, other towns surrendered without a fight during the autumn. However, some of the towns that surrendered later revolted.

The campaigns of 1210 to 1212, was a slow crusader advance. In 1212, however, Raymond counterattacked and retook over 30 towns, as Montfort was short of supplies. In 1213, forces led by King Peter II of Aragon, Raymond’s brother-in-law,, came to the aid of Toulouse. He decided to cross the Pyrenees and deal with Montfort at Muret. On September 10, Peter's army arrived at Muret, and was joined by a Toulousain militia. He chose to position his army so their right flank was protected by the Saudrune River, and the left protected by a marsh. He left the militia to assault the walls of the city. Montfort was soon short on provisions and knew that no reinforcements could be expected. He decided to seize the initiative

Montfort led an army of 1600 French Crusaders, along with a small contingent of knights brought by his ally, the Viscount of Corbeil. Montfort’s 900 cavalry included 270 knights, of exceptional quality. King Peter had brought 800-1000 Aragonese cavalry, joined by militia from Toulouse and armies of the counts of Comminges and Foix. Peter’s combined forces possibly numbered 4000 cavalry, with 30-40,000 infantry.

Montfort divided his army into three squadrons, and then led them across the Garonne to meet the allied forces on the 12th. Raymond, advised a defensive posture to weaken the advancing enemy with arrows and javelins, but Peter rejected this suggestion as unknightly and dishonorable.

Montfort enticed the allies to attack an apparently poorly-defended gate on the southeastern side of the city. As the attackers rushed in, Montfort ambushed them just inside and drove them out with heavy loss. Then while allied attention was focused here, he led his 900 horse out through the southwestern gate, causing the besiegers to believe he was trying to escape. In fact, riding around some low hills west of the city, Montfort turned north and crossed the Longe north of Muret, dispersing a small guard force here. He next surprised and smashed a far larger force under the Count of Foix. This action provided warning to Peter and his Aragonese. They barely had time to form line when 2/3 of Montfort’s force hit them in a ferocious charge. Peter rode to the front, forsaking his royal armor for the plain armor of a common soldier. Outnumbering the attackers 30-1, the Aragonese quickly engulfed them. But while attention was focused on this attack, Montfort led the remaining third of his cavalry in a wide envelopment and hit the Aragonese from behind. Peter himself was unhorsed. He cried out, “I am the king!” but was killed regardless. With this, the Aragonese forces broke in panic and fled. After a brief pursuit, the crusaders turned on the Toulousain forces; completely demoralized, these were overwhelmed. Allied losses were over 15,000 men. Montfort reportedly lost 8 men. The battle marked the end of Catalan influence north of the Pyrenees and the definitive separation of the two geographical areas, Languedoc and Catalonia.

In 1214, Raymond fled to England and his lands awarded by the pope to King Philip II, finally committing the king to the conflict. In 1215, the crusaders entered Toulouse, which was gifted to Montfort. In April 1216 he ceded his lands to Philip. The captured lands were largely lost between 1215 and 1225 in a series of revolts and military reverses. The death of Montfort at Toulouse after the return of Count Raymond and the consolidation of Albigensian resistance resulted in the military intervention of Louis VIII of France from 1226 with the support of Pope Honorius III.

The captured lands were largely lost between 1215 and 1225 in a series of revolts and military reverses. The death of Montfort at Toulouse after the return of Count Raymond and the consolidation of Albigensian resistance resulted in the military intervention of Louis VIII of France from 1226 with the support of Pope Honorius III.

In November 1226. Louis VIII died, but the struggle continued under King Louis IX, and the area was reconquered by 1229; the leading nobles made peace, culminating in the Treaty of Meaux-Paris in 1229, by the terms of which it was agreed that the County of Toulouse would be integrated into the French crown. After 1233, the Inquisition was central to crushing what remained of Catharism. Resistance and occasional revolts continued, but the days of Catharism were numbered. Military action ceased in 1255.