The Military History Thread

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January 14, 1894
Abor Expedition

Now called the Adis, this people were known in the 19th century as the Abors (“barbarians” or “unfriendlies”), a name given by the Assamese, and adopted by the British. The name was sometimes used to refer to any of the peoples northeast of Assam, now comprising the state of Arunachal Pradesh, in the far northeast. They had a high opinion of themselves and were regarded by their neighbors as fierce and warlike. The only people they were said to fear were the Nagas to their south. Their preferred weapons were swords and bamboo longbows; boys were taught to use the bow at an early age. The majority of arrows were poisoned. There were very few firearms.

The first British contact occurred in 1826 and relations remained good for some time. This relationship ended in 1848, when several British subjects who refused to pay the customary protection money were carried off. A punitive column of 100 men recovered the captives and beat of an attack, though with difficulty. Another refusal to pay tribute in 1858 resulted in more violence. The Abors attacked the British in camp in the middle of the night and the column had to retire with the loss of 3 sepoys and 22 porters. Emboldened, the Abors advanced south into the plains in 1859, erecting several stockades. On February 21, a British force of 435 troops, 200 auxiliaries and 4 guns stormed these, but at a cost of 45 casualties. Plans to continue the advance were abandoned. Though some tribes submitted, the Minyong Abors believed that the refusal to advance meant that the British were scared of them.

By 1866, relations had been patched up, the Minyong agreeing to respect the British frontier in return for a subsidy. Despite periodic Abor raids, this continued to be paid as late as 1894. An uneasy peace settled on the region. Relations began deteriorating once more in the early 1880s, when the British, despite recognizing that the Bor Abors considered all the territory between the Dihong and Dibang Rivers as their own, refused them permission to encroach into Mishimi lands. The Bor Abors nevertheless began moving against Mishimi lands in 1881 and the British responded by establishing a 300-strong garrison at Nizamghat on the Dibang to protect the Mishimi frontier.

Relations steadily deteriorated thereafter. The Abors, objecting to British game hunting in their territory, and to the fact that the British refused to give up slaves who had escaped across the frontier, yet had paid only half their value in compensation, protested that they were being slighted. The British responded that the Abors were “not only rude and insolent, but swaggering and boastful as ever, declaring that they are our equals in every way.” Occasional raids on villages in British territory resumed, continuing until a foray against a Miri village by Pasi and Minyong Abors late in 1893 finally provoked the British into mounting their largest expedition yet against the Bor Abors, considered the focus of the growing Abor unrest, rather than against the Pasis and Minyongs responsible for the most recent raid. The declared objective was to punish 2 specific villages - Bomjir, Dambuk and Silluk.

Setting out on January 14, 1894, the British force comprised 100-150 Gurkhas, 400 Frontier Police, 2 7-pounders and 1500 porters, under Captain R.M. Maxwell. Bomjir was found deserted the next day. and was burnt. No opposition was encountered until the 20th, when an extensive, strongly-built stockade was reached a mile outside Dambuk. An attempt by the advance guard to rush this was easily repulsed. A general assault was then attempted, preceded by several rounds from the artillery, which had “no visible effect” on the defenses. Dense forest rendered a turning movement impossible, and panjies (sharpened bamboo stakes) slowed the pace of the storming column. It is recorded that “the Abors fought well, standing to their defenses and keeping up a discharge of stones and arrows while the attackers were hacking at the chevaux-de-frise of panjies which prevented them from reaching the stockade.” They only abandoned the fort late in the day, when an Abor guide showed the British a hidden way through its defenses, and Dambuk itself was then evacuated under cover of darkness. The attack had cost Maxwell’s force 3 dead and 27 wounded, as against a known Abor loss of 2 dead and several wounded, though their actual losses were probably higher.

The British suffered further losses in the their attack on Shilluk on the 25th, and then spent the next month accumulating sufficient provisions to enable them to continue their advance to what had now become the principle objective, the village of Damroh, which, it was believed, had provided armed assistance to the defenders of Dambuk. Estimated to be just another 4 days march into the hills, the subsequent advance took Maxwell considerably longer; many of his porters deserted and the difficult terrain limited the British advance to only 6 miles on the 3rd day, and just 2 miles on the 4th. At the end of February, with supplies running short, Maxwell sent out a small flying column in a last ditch effort to reach Damroh, its orders being “to destroy the place and return the same day. This, however, failed, the march being greatly delayed by having to turn the Abors out of a great stone-shoot arranged far up the hillside, and the column returned at two in the afternoon without having reached the objective.” The British now had no choice but to withdraw. They encountered further Abor opposition as they fell back, and when the reached their supply base at the captured village of Bordak, it was to find that it had been burnt to the ground and its tiny garrison of 17 sepoys and 44 followers massacred; there was only 1 survivor. This brought losses amongst the expedition’s military personnel alone to 49 killed and 45 wounded, nearly 20% of their overall strength. The 2 nearest Abor villages, Anyeng and Mebo, were believed to be responsible for the massacre at Bordak, and were consequently leveled.

The British were left with no alternative but to resort to a blockade of the Abor frontier, thereby cutting the tribesmen off from essential supplies only available by trade with their lowland neighbors. In addition, the inhabitants of Bomjir were forbidden to rebuild their village, and when they tried, the British returned and razed the village again in March 1895, and yet again in December. Pasi territory remained blockaded until its people submitted in 1896, and Bor Abor territory until it made a similar submission in 1900. The territory remained unadministered and largely unexplored by the British even at the end of the century.

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January 15, 2002
Enduring Freedom - Philippines

Even before Spain had ceded the Philippines to the US an ongoing insurgency was being waged by Muslims in the south against the predominately Catholic government in Manila. Groups like the Moros, based on the islands of Mindanao, Basilan, and Jolo, regularly rose against US garrison forces. Following World War II, the insurgency was largely kept in control by the repressive policies of dictator Ferdinand Marcos. His fall at the end of the Cold War, however, allowed the Muslim insurgents to begin anew.

Throughout the 1990s, the Muslim groups, including Abu Sayyaf (Arabic for “Father of Swordsmith”), were responsible for a number of bombings, kidnappings, assassinations, and other acts throughout the Philippines, including in Manila. Abu Sayyaf and other insurgent groups also entered into the growing radical Islamist network that included Al Qaeda, taking a partnership role in operations. One such plan, by 1993 World Trade Center bomber Ramzi Yousef, to kill Pope John Paul II, bomb 12 airliners, and fly another airliner into CIA headquarters at Langley, VA, was supported by another Filipino Islamist insurgent group, Jemaah Islamiyah (Arabic for “Islamic Congregation”).

By the time of the 9/11 attacks, Abu Sayyaf and the other groups in the southern Philippines had become such a threat that the Philippine government was finally willing to allow US forces back into the country. It took most of a decade of discreet military-to-military contact between the US and Filipino governments to rebuild the relationship enough to enable a long-term deployment of trainers and advisers to the southern Philippines. In order to provide a legal basis for the presence of US forces despite provisions in the 1987 Philippine constitution specifically banning the presence of foreign troops, Philippine president Gloria Arroyo invoked the 1951 Mutual Defense Treaty between the US and the Philippines.

What became Operation Enduring Freedom - Philippines (OEF-P) was actually an extension of an existing bilateral training exercise, Balikatan (“shoulder-to-shoulder”) 02-1, and continued a Mobile Training Team (MTT) mission that had predated 9/11. The planned OEF-P mission objectives were surveillance and control of Abu Sayyaf transit/supply routes, supporting villages and access to key personnel; training with Filipino military and security forces; support and advice operations by Filipino strike teams in the Southern Philippines; elimination of the ability of Al Qaeda, Abu Sayyaf, and other terrorist groups to move through the Philippines to their desired target areas throughout the world; denial of the terrorists’ direct or indirect support from sympathizers, outside terrorist groups and supportive nation-states; and psychological and civil affairs campaigns to separate the insurgency from the local population.

In addition to deploying training and advisory personnel, the US also began major transfers of surplus equipment and weapons. In 2002 alone, this included a C-130 Hercules transport plane, 5 UH-1 transport helicopters, 300 2 ½-ton trucks, a pair of Point-class patrol cutters, and 15,000 M-16 rifles.

For the first deployment of Joint Task Force (JTF) 510 in 2002, the US had a variety of forces around which to build this force. While OEF-P I was planned as a training and advisory operation, that does not mean that the forces engaged were just a collection of rear-echelon personnel. Instead Lt. Gen. Donald Wurster selected a hard core of 1200 warfighters, including 3rd Battalion/1st Special Forces Group (Green Berets), SEAL Team 7, 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment, 353rd Special Operations Group, and 112th Signals Battalion. The rest of the military provided small units and sometimes just individual specialists to flesh out JTF 510. These included Marines, Navy construction engineers, Army civil affairs and psychological warfare personnel, medical teams, and of course, a solid base of intelligence professionals.

In February 2002, JTF 510 began to flow into the southern Philippines, joining their Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) counterparts from Southern Command, commanded by Lt. Gen. Roy Cimatu. They began by establishing bases for logistics, training and communications. Along with the airfield on Basilan, the principle Abu Sayyaf stronghold, JTF 510 built almost 50 miles of roads, improved a port facility and dug 25 new wells. With the bases and supply lines established, JTF 510 went into a period of hard training and patrolling, getting everyone used to the operating areas.

In addition, the operation had a significant “hearts and minds” component, including Operation Smiles. Operation Smiles was composed of 20 combined US/Filipino teams with medical personnel fanning out across Basilan providing health services to more than 18,000 civilians. They then conducted more than 20 Medical Civil Action Projects (MEDCAPs), which provided $100,000-plus in donated medical equipment and supplies, along with improving 14 schools, 7 medical clinics, and 3 hospitals.

While the JTF 510 and Philippine forces worked hard to win over the local populace, they had a more kinetic approach toward Abu Sayyaf and the other insurgent fighters. Over the previous few years, Abu Sayyaf had financed their operations by kidnapping foreigners and collecting ransoms. Therefore, the initial US/Philippine response was an aggressive program of patrolling and intelligence collection, much of it from local citizens who preferred the attentions of the newly interested Manila government to that of the insurgents. This was followed by a growing number of raids upon Abu Sayyaf camps and strongholds, which began to rapidly thin their ranks.

There have been allegations in the Philippine press and elsewhere that visiting forces from the United States appear to have become a permanent fixture in the landscape of Zamboanga City and other parts of Mindanao. Former presidential executive secretary Eduardo Ermita responded by saying, that the US soldiers “... all look alike so it’s as if they never leave,” going on to say that they “... are replaced every now and then. They leave, contrary to the critics’ impression that they have not left”. These remarks were made in response to statements made by Edgar Araojo, a political science professor at Western Mindanao State University, that the country had surrendered its sovereignty. In specific response, Ermita said, “Our national sovereignty and territorial integrity are intact”, going on to point out that the Balikatan exercises had bolstered national and regional security, and to say that terrorists and rebels were “common enemies of democracy, therefore there is nothing wrong with cooperation” between the armed forces of the US and the Philippines.

In July 2002, JTF 510 transitioned into Joint Special Operations Task Force - Philippines (JSOTF-P), reflecting the change to a long-term commitment to Operation Enduring Freedom. In addition, by 2013, the CIA had sent its elite paramilitary officers from the Special Activities Division to hunt down and kill or capture key terrorist leaders. In late 2013, operations began to wind down, and JSOTF-P disbanded in June 2014, ending a successful 12-year mission. The operation cost 17 US military deaths.

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January 16, 1761
Fall of Pondicherry

The 1760 operations on the coast of Coromandel opened with a decisive British victory at the Battle of Wandewash (see posting). Throughout the year, Sir Eyre Coote methodically took the various French strongholds, progressing steadily towards Pondicherry, their headquarters in India. By mid July, he was blockading the city but his army was not strong enough to undertake a regular siege.

On September 2, important reinforcements arrived from Great Britain. On September 4, Thomas, Comte de Lally made a last desperate attempt to break the blockade but his army was repulsed. Coote was finally in a position to lay siege to Pondicherry. Lally, despite shameful disloyalty and opposition from the civil authorities, resolved to fight on to the end, trusting that Adm. d’Aché might come with his squadron to his relief; and his regular troops worked for him with a fidelity and devotion worthy of the best traditions of France.

In September 1760, the siege was about to begin when commissions arrived from Great Britain for Major George Monson who had been promoted colonel over Coote’s head. The latter retired to Madras. Monson determined to make a simultaneous night attack on all the redoubts at the 4 openings in the boundary hedge. The redoubt on the north was called Madras, on the west there were the Valdore redoubt and the Villanore redoubt, and on the south the Ariancopang (today Ariyankuppam) redoubt. All were strongly fortified and well garrisoned.

The British force was formed in 2 columns. The first (Monson) comprised the 79th and 84th Foot, a detachment of 89th highlanders, marines and 500 sepoys, a total of 1850 men. The second column, under Major Joseph Smith, comprised the Madras and Bombay European Regiments, 2 foreign companies, and 600 sepoys, a total of 1870 men. The first column was to attack the Valdore redoubt and the hedge to its west; while the second was to carry the village of Oulgarry and afterwards to attack the Villenore redoubt.

Monson’s column pushed on, but having a considerable distance to march, and the rear of the column having lost its way, there was some delay. The head of the column having emerged on a road enfiladed by French guns, a single discharge of grape from an 18-pounder killed 18 men and wounded 36 others, including Monson, shot through the thigh. Nevertheless, the first column rushed on to the attack and, after several repulses, the Valdore redoubt was finally carried.

Smith’s column had been discovered before Monson’s and had been fired upon at a village in front of Oulgarry, occupied in force by the French. After a determined resistance, the British grenadiers cleared the village. The British then entered through the embrasures in the works and carried them, driving out the Lally and Lorraine Regiments, taking nearly 100 prisoners and capturing 10 guns. The 2 French regiments, after their defeat, drew up in front of the Villenore redoubt but, hearing the fire of Monson’s column on their flank and being pressed by Smith, retired in such haste and confusion that they did not attempt to reinforce the redoubt. The guard of the Villenore redoubt abandoned it and retired with the 2 regiments to the glacis of the fort. The Bataillon des Indes continued in possession of the works of Ariancopang which had only been threatened by the cavalry. During the night, the French made a determined attempt to retake these posts but were repulsed with much loss by the Bombay detachment.

On September 20, Coote arrived to assume command in place of the injured Monson. He immediately had the captured redoubts secured. On September 27, he reconnoitered towards Ariancopang. On his approach with his usual escort, the French abandoned Ariancopang and a small party of the Madras European Regiment and some Indians instantly took possession of the redoubt. On September 28, 400 men of Lorraine attempted to recover Ariancopang but without success.

On September 30, the French began to demolish the village of Blanchière to deny the British a stronghold in case the Madras redoubt should fall. The same day, Coote made a move towards Blanchière and penetrated through an unguarded opening and gained the rear of the entrenchments. After a short resistance, the French abandoned the Madras redoubt and took post in Blanchière in its rear. The redoubt was instantly occupied by the British. During the night, the French attempted to retake the redoubt, despite initial success, they failed. The British spent October constructing siege batteries.

On November 8, 4 batteries opened up. On November 12, the French abandoned the Saint-Thomas redoubt, completing the investment. Another battery was soon placed here.

On January 1, 1761, a violent hurricane burst over the city and harbor. Adm. Stevens, in the Norfolk(74) cut his cable, and by gun-signals ordered his captains to do the same; but, owing to the violence of the gale and the amount of spray in the air, the signals were neither heard nor seen. Three ships of the line were dismasted, but managed to ride out the storm. A worse fate overtook the Newcastle (50), Queenborough (20), and fireship Protector, all of which drove ashore and were wrecked, though they lost only 7 men. Other vessels were even more unfortunate. The Duc d'Aquitaine (64), Sunderland (60), and stores ship Drake foundered with all hands, except 7 Europeans and 7 lascars. The total sacrifice of life was about 1100 men. This hurricane ruined all the works of the besiegers. The inundations which followed were so extensive that the French were able to recover the Saint-Thomas redoubt.

On January 3, Stevens resumed his position and renewed the blockade. He was reinforced the next day and, since the French fleet did not appear, the siege works were quickly repaired and pushed forward. The Saint-Thomas redoubt was again captured on the 7th, but lost again that night.

On January 10, a large battery, named the Hanover, opened against the west face of the fort. On the night of January 13, 700 Europeans, drafted from every corps in the British force, assembled at the village of Blanchière and before daybreak had not only constructed a battery within 450 yards of the town but 2 long parallels.

On January 15, a new battery was marked out near the north beach within 300yards of the walls. In the afternoon, the French garrison, on the brink of starvation, surrendered. On the 16th, the French paraded in front of the citadel for colonel Coote’s inspection: only 1100 Europeans appeared under arms and these were worn down from famine, fatigue and disease. The most impaired and enfeebled were the grenadiers of Lorraine and Lally Regiments, the finest body of French troops that had ever landed in India. During the entire period of their service in India and during the distress of the siege, not a man had deserted. After the review, the French troops grounded their arms and became prisoners of war.

European military prisoners, of all ranks, were 2072 and 381 civilians. In the arsenal and on the works were 500 excellent cannon and 100 mortars besides an ample supply of ammunition of all sorts and a great number of firearms. The British lost 32 officers and 500 rank and file killed or wounded.

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152 BC
Revolt of Alexander Balas

As the Seleucid king Demetrius I Soter (162-150 BC) became more and more unpopular due to his arrogance and drunkenness, it was quite an easy task for rival kingdoms, such as Pergamon or Egypt to stir up revolt against him. As a competitor was lacking, 2 youngsters were found, a boy and a girl who were presumed to be the children of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uncle of Demetrius. The boy was presented to the Roman Senate as the legitimate heir of the Seleucid kingdom. The Senate gave a senatus consultum authorizing the new heir to claim his kingdom, but did nothing more to strengthen this claim.

In 152 BC, this young man, Alexander Balas, landed at Ptolemais (now Akko), on the Phoenician coast. He was helped and supported by Attalus II, king of Pergamon, and Ariarathes IV, king of Cappadocia. But the strongest help came from the king of Egypt, Ptolemy VI Philometor. Not only did he offer military support, but also the hand of his daughter, Cleopatra Thea. Alexander did his best to win the support of Jonathan Maccabee’s Jewish rebels and march on to Antioch. The final battle between him and Demetrius I apparently took place around June or July 150 BC, according to a cuneiform tablet.

After he became the uncontested ruler of Syria (to some modern authors, this would be the moment Ptolemy VI became fully involved in his support and the royal wedding was celebrated), Alexander went on living an easy life, perhaps neglecting his royal duties. The date of the loss of Mesopotamia to the Parthians, could be placed between 155 and 140 BC. It is however almost certain that Media was lost c148 BC, and the king of Elymais, Kamnaskires, took Susa around 147 BC.

In 147 BC, Demetrius II (soon to be styled Nikator, “the Victorious”), a son of Demetrius I, landed in Cilicia to claim his throne. The Egyptian father-in-law rushed to help Alexander, but, for some unknown reason, the latter tried to assassinate him at Ptolemais. Ptolemy VI promptly changed sides, while Antioch on the Orontes, the capital city, revolted and offered the crown to Ptolemy, who was wise enough to decline it, but persuaded the citizens to support Demetrius II.

The final battle was fought in Syria, on the Oinoparas river in 146 BC. Alexander was defeated and fled, but Ptolemy was seriously wounded and died soon after. The end was close also for Alexander - he sought refuge with an Arab sheikh, but was assassinated.

Whether Alexander I Balas was really the “lost and found son” of Antiochus IV is uncertain. Seleucid or not, he is a typical figure for the last century of the history of the Seleucid Empire. He was a usurper, backed by foreign powers, and came into possession of his kingdom as an adventurer. He lost his throne to another royal claimant (which gave the Jewish rebels the opportunity to auction off their support to 2 rival Seleucid kings, thus gaining some new privileges and having some old ones confirmed).

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January 17, 1885
Battle of Abu Klea

With Charles Gordon besieged in Khartoum (see posting), Prime Minister Gladstone was under pressure to act, despite his determination to evacuate Sudan. It was the view in the country that Gordon must be rescued. Finally, the threatened resignation of Lord Hartington, Secretary of State for War, forced Gladstone to agree to an expeditionary force. Lord Wolseley, Britain’s most eminent general, was given command of the Sudan expeditionary force.

Wolseley had the choice of 2 routes to reach Khartoum: the shorter, from Suakin on the Red Sea and the longer up the Nile. Wolseley chose the Nile route. Landing at Suakin would have presented the problem of movement across a wide expanse of country held by the Hadendowah tribe, which Gen. Graham had fought at El Teb (see posting) and Tamai, the previous year. The Nile did present difficulties. There was no established department to provide the transport for such a journey. Boats had to be built and crews recruited and transported from Canada and South Africa. Cook’s travel company provided the steamers. The force allocated comprised 6 battalions of infantry, a regiment of cavalry, with guns and engineers from the British forces already in Egypt. Sir Redvers Buller was appointed Wolseley’s chief of staff.

It was apparent to Wolseley that to reach Khartoum in time, he needed a flying column. For this purpose, the Camel Corps was formed. Instead of forming it from the line infantry regiments, in the expectation that the corps would simply be mounted infantry, it took many of its officers and men from the socially elite regiments. Two of the Camel Corps’ regiments were formed from the cavalry - the Heavy Regiment from the Household Cavalry, Dragoon Guards, Dragoons and Lancers, the Light Regiment from the Hussars. The Guards Regiment of the Corps was formed from the Grenadier, Coldstream and Scots Guards, with Royal Marine Light Infantry and the Mounted Infantry Regiment from line regiments already in Egypt.

While the main body of Wolseley’s army struggled up the Nile from Wadi Halfa in boats, Maj. Gen. Sir Herbert Stewart was to march across the desert from Korti to capture Metemmeh on the Nile, 50 miles north of Khartoum. Stewart’s command was labeled the Desert Column and comprised the Camel Corps, additional troops of the Royal Sussex Regiment, 19th Hussars, 3 guns and a Royal Navy detachment with a Gardner gun (similar to the Gatling). Difficulty was immediately encountered. There were insufficient camels to carry the supplies for the Column. Stewart was forced to take part of his force across the desert to the wells at Jakdul, halfway between Korti and Metemmeh, and leave the troops there while returning with the camels to bring up the rest of his force.

On January 14, 1885, Stewart moved out from Jakdul with the Heavy Camel Regiment, Guards Camel Regiment, Mounted Infantry Camel Regiment, 19th Hussars and part of 1st Battalion Royal Sussex Regiment and the guns. A garrison was left to hold the wells. It was hoped that Stewart’s advance across the desert would take the Mahdi by surprise and ensure that Metemmeh could be stormed with a minimum of difficulty. As Stewart’s force approached the wells at Abu Klea on January 16, pickets of the 19th Hussars encountered parties of Mahdists. It could be seen that a large force was established at the wells ready to give battle. The British had left the last water some 43 miles before and needed replenishment. Stewart halted 2 miles short of Abu Klea and camped.

A thorn zareba or compound was built during the night. The camp was under constant sniper fire and with daylight on January 17, a strong force of Mahdists could be seen formed up to the left of the zareba. Several unsuccessful attempts were made to lure this force into attacking. As this ploy had no effect, Stewart resolved to advance to the wells in square. The Mounted Infantry were positioned in the left front corner of the square. The Guards took the right front corner. The Heavy Camel Regiment took the left rear corner and the rear face, while the Royal Sussex took the rear of the right face. The troops marched on foot with the camels in the center of the square. The guns were placed in the center of the front face. The Gardner gun under Captain Lord Beresford, took the rear of the center, ready to be rushed to any point of crisis. The main body of 19th Hussars was at the left of the square, with a small detachment on the right. There were 1400 troops present.

At 7.30 AM, the square began its difficult and cumbersome advance, the aim being to pass the flank of the Mahdist position and force an attack. As the square moved forward, skirmishers went out to engage. The ground was broken and the square became severely distorted, with the rear lagging back, forced out of place by the vagaries of the movement of the camels. As casualties were inflicted by sniping, camels were stopped and loaded with the wounded, causing the camels to lag and further distort the formation. The officers in front, who controlled the movement of the square, gave insufficient consideration to the difficulties being encountered at the rear. As a result, gaps opened up at crucial points in the corners and rear of the square.

Much of the Mahdist fire was coming from a gully parallel to the route the British were taking on the left. Stewart ordered that skirmishers be sent out from the Heavy Regiment to neutralize this fire. At around 9.30, it became clear that the Mahdist army was about to attack the front left. The square wheeled to the right, to move onto higher ground. A force of probably around 3000 Mahdists appeared from the nearby gully and charged the square. At this point the British were hampered by the presence of their skirmishers, who had to be permitted to regain the square before fire could be opened. The Mahdist assault was consequently within 200 yards or less before the British troops fired their first volley.

The charge was delivered at the section of the front left held by the Mounted Infantry. Beresford brought up his Gardner gun and opened fire on the charging Mahdists. After firing some 70 rounds, it jammed. Before it could be cleared, the Mahdist spearmen overwhelmed the crew and killed all but Beresford, who fell under the gun, and one of the sailors. Probably due to the heavy volley firing from the Mounted Infantry and shrapnel from the guns in the front face, the Mahdist charge veered away, down the left face and fell on the fragmented corner held by the Heavy Cavalry regiment, where the Mahdists broke into the square. The troopers of the Heavy Cavalry were fighting with the long infantry rifle, with which they were unfamiliar. The cavalry officers had no experience of fighting in an infantry square and took insufficient care to ensure the integrity of the formation.

The charge into the center of the square was impeded by the mass of camels, which prevented the Mahdists from reaching the opposing faces. The rear rank of the Mounted Infantry in the front face and the Foot Guards and Royal Marines of the Guards regiment in the right face turned and opened a devastating fire. After a hectic time, the Mahdists who had broken into the square were shot down and the charge died away. The battle was over in 10 minutes.

The 19th Hussars moved forward and took possession of the wells. By 1 PM, the square had reformed and the wounded were taken care of, so the force could move forward to the wells, which were reached by 4:00. In the evening, a party of Mounted Infantry returned to the overnight zareba and brought up the garrison.

British casualties were 71 killed and 64 wounded. Among the dead was explorer and national hero Col. Frederick Burnaby. It is likely that the Mahdists suffered around 1500 casualties. The Mahdists refused to surrender, even when wounded. Only one man was taken prisoner, an Egyptian captured at Berber and forced to fight for the Mahdi.

On the afternoon of the next day, the column resumed its advance to Metemmeh. A prisoner revealed that there were some 8000 Mahdists in the town. The march was continued through the night, dawn finding the British force within 4 miles of Metemmeh, having covered around 20 miles. The British formed square and advanced to the Nile at Gubat, also known as Abu Kru, under heavy fire. One of the casualties of this fire was Gen. Stewart who was fatally wounded. Command of the Desert Column devolved on Brig. Gen. Sir Charles Wilson.

4 steamers arrived at Gubat from Khartoum on the 21st and 2 days later Wilson embarked with soldiers of the Royal Sussex and headed for Khartoum. Wilson’s men reached Khartoum on January 28, Wilson’s steamer having twice grounded. They sailed past the city under heavy fire, but could see only Mahdist troops on the banks. The Mahdi’s forces had taken Khartoum on January 26, massacring the defenders. Gen. Gordon was killed on the steps of his palace. The British relief was 2 days too late.

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January 18, 1813
Battles of Raisin River

On August 17, 1812, Brig. Gen. William Hull, commanding the American Army of the Northwest, surrendered Detroit to the British. Its loss to the British gave them a base to increase their presence in the Michigan Territory. This early success convinced many Indians to side with Britain.

Following Hull’s dismissal, Brig. Gen. James Winchester was given command of the Army of the Northwest. Instead of pushing north to retake Detroit, Winchester had a less ambitious plan. His resulting unpopularity caused the command to be given to Maj. Gen. William Henry Harrison; Winchester was retained as second-in-command. Harrison's first plan on taking command was to march north and recover Detroit. To accomplish this, he divided the army into 2 columns, under himself and Winchester. Meanwhile, Brig. Gen. Henry Procter, commanding the British Army around Detroit, assembled all the troops available, supported by about 500 Indians under the Shawnee leader Tecumseh. The initial goal was Frenchtown, about 35 miles south of Detroit. This settlement’s militia had been disarmed and its residents were pleading for relief.

Winchester led a column consisting of 1000 inexperienced regulars and volunteers, most of whom came from Kentucky. Harrison had ordered him to remain within supporting distance of Harrison’s column near the Maumee River about 30 miles south of Frenchtown. Instead, Winchester ignored his orders and sent a small relief detachment north to Frenchtown. Lt. Col. William Lewis led these men across the frozen Maumee and along the shore of Lake Erie to the Raisin River. His force consisted of 667 Kentuckians and 100 local French-speaking Michigan militiamen. On January 18, 1813, Lewis charged across the frozen river to attack the British and Indian camp, which contained 63 soldiers of the Essex Militia, accompanied by a 3-pounder cannon, and about 200 Potawatomi. A brisk battle took place before the Americans forced the Canadians and their allies to retreat. The Canadians charged the American lines several times, with the Canadians and natives fighting log to log, after which Lewis reclaimed Frenchtown. The Canadians lost a man wounded and 2 captured, with 15 Indians killed and 1 captured. The Americans lost 13 dead and 54 wounded.

Winchester and the rest of his troops met with Lewis two days later. Winchester had acted without orders, but Gen. Harrison was pleased with Lewis’ success. However, Harrison was concerned that the British forces might combine and overpower Winchester’s small force. He ordered additional men, including 3 companies of 17th US Infantry and a company of 19th Infantry, to move to Frenchtown. He sent a messenger to Winchester ordering him to hold the ground and prepare for further combat.

Winchester's soldiers were largely untrained and inexperienced, and events showed that his planning was poor. He had not ensured that ammunition and other necessary supplies were brought forward. The palisade around the town had not been strengthened, and the regulars were camped outside its walls. Several days after the first clash, residents reported to Winchester that a large British force was heading toward Frenchtown. Winchester ignored the warning, insisting it would be “some days” before the British “would be ready to do anything.” His troops were camped throughout town. Without ensuring that sentries and pickets had been placed, Winchester retired for the night to his headquarters at the Navarre House south of the town.

On hearing that the Americans had recaptured Frenchtown, Procter marched from Upper Canada, invading Michigan in strength. His army consisted of 597 regulars from the 41st Foot and Royal Newfoundland Fencibles, joined by about 800 Indians. Tecumseh was in the area, but he was not present at the Battle of Frenchtown. He left command of the Indians to Wyandot chiefs Roundhead and Walk-in-the-Water. The Indians included Shawnee, Potawatomi, Ottawa, Chippewa, Delaware, Miami, Winnebago, Creek, Sauk, and Fox. Procter's artillery consisted of 6 light 3-pounders drawn on sledges, manned by men from the Canadian Provincial Marine. Procter halted on January 21 about 5 miles north of the Raisin to prepare for battle.

Proctor surprised the Americans before sunrise on January 22. American security was so poor that the attackers were half formed within musket range of the defenses before they were even detected. The American regulars stood their ground for only 20 minutes. These 4 companies, consisting mostly of green recruits, were caught in the open. They faced heavy musket volleys to their front, while they were also under fire from the cannon and flanked by the Essex militia and the Indians. The regulars broke and ran. Winchester was awakened by the artillery fire and rushed to the field, ordering 240 men of the 1st Kentucky Rifle Regiment (Col. John Allen) to reinforce the regulars. Allen’s men could not even reach them.

Under fire from three sides, the Americans fell into a headlong retreat. They tried to rally 3 times, but were eventually surrounded on a narrow road. Almost 220 of the 400 Americans had been killed, many of them shot, tomahawked, and scalped during the withdrawal; 147 men, including Winchester, were captured. Chief Roundhead stripped Winchester of his uniform before he turned him over to the British, which led to a legend that he was captured in his nightshirt. The remaining Americans were scattered. Dozens had laid down their weapons in surrender, only to be tomahawked by the Indians. Men of the other units also tried to flee; most were run down and killed. A few escaped by simply removing their shoes and running in their stockings, which left footprints in the snow that looked like moccasins. Thus they were not followed.

The 1st and 5th Kentucky Rifle Regiments and the 1st Volunteers continued to hold out in Frenchtown. Losing 5 killed and 40 wounded, they took a heavy toll. Eventually, however, they began running out of ammunition, having repulsed 3 assaults. Proctor demanded Winchester order his remaining men to surrender. Otherwise, all would be killed and Frenchtown burned. Procter insisted on an unconditional surrender and refused Winchester’s counter-proposals, since Winchester was already his prisoner. Major George Madison, a US officer still on the field, persuaded Procter to accept a surrender on the promise that all would be protected as prisoners of war. When they saw the British waving a white flag, the Kentuckians thought it meant a call for a truce. Instead, a British officer handed them a written order from Winchester to surrender. They refused and decided to fight to the death rather than trust the Indians. After another 3 hours of fighting, Major Madison issued a declaration of surrender. The British had lost 24 dead and 161 wounded; Indian losses are unknown. The Americans lost 397 dead and at least 40 wounded; 547 men were captured.

Procter determined on a hasty retreat in case Gen. Harrison sent more troops when he learned of Winchester’s defeat. Proctor marched the uninjured prisoners north and across the frozen Detroit River to Fort Malden; the wounded prisoners unable to walk were left behind at Frenchtown. Procter could have waited another day for sleds to arrive to transport the wounded prisoners, but he worried that more Americans were on the way from the south.

On the morning of January 23, the Indians began robbing the injured Americans in Frenchtown. The severely injured American soldiers left behind were killed. The Indians also set fire to the buildings that housed the wounded. Prisoners who escaped from the burning buildings were killed; the rest died in the flames. As the Potawatomi marched prisoners north toward Detroit, they killed any who could not keep up. Between 30 and 100 were killed. The slaughter of the American wounded on January 23 became known as the Raisin River Massacre. It so horrified Americans that it overshadowed the battle, and news spread throughout the country. Kentucky lost many of its leading citizens in either the battle or the subsequent massacre. The rallying cry “Remember the Raisin!” led many more Kentuckians to enlist.

Harrison was forced to call off his plans for a winter campaign to retake Detroit. The city was held by the British until the US victory at the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10 (see posting) allowed the recapture of Detroit. Frenchtown was held as a stronghold by the British until Col. Richard Mentor Johnson from Kentucky led his cavalry to liberate the town on September 27.

[Ennath]

January 19, 1862
Battle of Mill Springs

In 1861 the border state of Kentucky had declared neutrality in the Civil War. This was first violated on September 3, when Confederate Brig. Gen. Gideon Pillow, acting on orders from Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk, occupied Columbus, and 2 days later, Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses Grant seized Paducah. Henceforth, neither adversary respected the proclaimed neutrality of the state and the Confederate advantage was lost; the buffer zone that Kentucky provided was no longer available to assist in the defense of Tennessee.

By early 1862, a single Confederate general, Albert Sidney Johnston, commanded all forces from Arkansas to the Cumberland Gap. His forces were spread thinly over a wide area. His left was Polk in Columbus with 12,000 men. The center consisted of Forts Henry and Donelson under the command of Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman, with 4000 men to defend the important Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. His right flank was in Kentucky, with Brig. Gen. Simon Bolivar Buckner’s 4000 men in Bowling Green, and about 4000 in the Military District of East Tennessee under Maj. Gen. George Crittenden, which had the responsibility for guarding the Cumberland Gap, the gateway for entering pro-Unionist East Tennessee.

Crittenden’s 1st Brigade was commanded by Brig. Gen. Felix Zollicoffer, whose main responsibility was to guard the Cumberland Gap. Deeming that the gap was fortified satisfactorily, in November 1861 he advanced west into Kentucky to move closer to the Confederate forces in Bowling Green and to strengthen control in the area around Somerset. The southern bank of the Cumberland at Mill Springs was a bluff and a strong defensive position, whereas the northern bank was low and flat. Zollicoffer chose to move most of his men to the north bank where they would be closer to nearby Union troops, incorrectly assuming that it was more defensible. Both Crittenden and Johnston ordered Zollicoffer to relocate south of the river, but he could not comply because he had insufficient boats to cross the unfordable river quickly and was afraid his brigade would be caught by the enemy halfway across.

Union Brig. Gen. George Thomas received orders to drive the Confederates across the Cumberland and break up Crittenden’s force. Thomas slowly marched through rain-soaked country, arriving at Logan’s Crossroads on January 17, 1862, where he waited for Brig. Gen. Albin Schoepf’s troops from Somerset to join him. Crittenden, who until early January had remained in his headquarters in Knoxville, arrived at Mill Springs and realized that his inexperienced subordinate was in a dangerous situation. He devised a plan to attack the Union force before it could concentrate against him. One section of the Union Army, 3 brigades under Thomas, was located at Logan’s Crossroads, while Schoepf’s brigade was at Somerset, separated by rain-swollen Fishing Creek, which might be a sufficient barrier to prevent the forces from joining quickly. Crittenden ordered Zollicoffer to attack the Union camp at Logan’s Crossroads at dawn on January 19. He had 5900 men to Thomas’ 4400.

The Confederate march through the night was hampered by rain and mud, and the troops arrived at Logan’s Crossroads cold and miserable. Many of the men carried antique flintlock muskets, which became almost useless in the wet weather. The slowness of the march had cost them the element of surprise. Nevertheless, they launched a spirited attack, led from the front by Zollicoffer, and achieved some initial success. The 15th Mississippi Infantry and the 20th Tennessee pushed back the Union 4th Kentucky Infantry, 2nd Minnesota and 10th Indiana and some Union cavalry.

In the poor visibility of the dark woods, clouded with gunsmoke, confusion reigned. Zollicoffer, who was conspicuous in front of his men with a white raincoat, mistakenly approached the Union 4th Kentucky, believing they were Confederates firing on their own men. Zollicoffer was shot and killed. The sudden death of their commander and heavy fire from the 4th Kentucky caused the center of the Confederate line to fall back momentarily in confusion. Crittenden rallied his men and ordered a general advance by Zollicoffer’s brigade and the brigade of Brig. Gen. William Carroll.

At this point, Thomas arrived on the field and ordered the 9th Ohio to advance while the 2nd Minnesota maintained heavy fire. Col. Robert McCook, commanding Thomas’ 3rd Brigade, wrote that the lines were so close that the “enemy and the Second Minnesota were poking their guns through the same fence.” When the 9th Ohio turned the Confederate left, the battle was decided. The Confederates broke and ran back toward Mill Springs in a disorderly rout, and Crittenden, who was rumored to be drunk during the battle, was powerless to stop them. They frantically crossed to the south side of the Cumberland, abandoning 12 valuable artillery pieces, 150 wagons, more than 1000 horses and mules, and all of their wounded. The retreat continued all the way to Chestnut Mound, Tennessee, about 50 miles east of Nashville.

Union losses were 39 killed and 207 wounded, Confederate 125 killed and 404 wounded or missing. Crittenden’s military career was also a casualty. Accused of drunkenness and treason, his army was disbanded and he was reassigned to be a corps commander under Buckner at Bowling Green. Within two months he was relieved of his command and arrested for a subsequent episode of drunkenness. In October 1862, after a court of inquiry ordered by Gen. Braxton Bragg, Crittenden resigned as a general and served without rank on the staff of Brig. Gen. John Williams and other officers in western Virginia for the remainder of the war.

The Battle of Mill Springs broke the main Confederate defensive line in eastern Kentucky. With these victories, the U.S. carried the war into Middle Tennessee in February. Confederate fortunes in the state did not rise again until summer when Braxton Bragg and Kirby Smith launched their Kentucky Campaign, which culminated in the Battle of Perryville (see posting) and Bragg’s subsequent retreat.

[Ennath]

630
Frisian-Frankish Wars

The Frisians, living in the north and west of the Low Countries, consisted of loosely bonded tribes centered on warbands but without great power.

Though the Merovingian king Chilperic I (561-584) is mentioned in Frankish sources as the “terror of the Frisians and the Suevi”, there is evidence that around 600 the Frisians were successful in a war that allowed the Frisians to expand further south. By 630 the situation had changed. Dagobert I brought the Frankish empire under one banner again and conquered the lands south of the Oude Rijn (a branch of the Rhine delta in south Holland). This time they brought Christianity to the Frisian lands and built a church in Utrecht. After Dagobert died the Franks could not hold their position there, and around 650 the central river area, including Dorestad became Frisian again. The minting of Frankish coins stopped and Utrecht became the residence of the Frisian kings.

Under the rule of King Aldgisl (late 7th century) the Frisians came into conflict with the Frankish mayor of the palace Ebroin. This time the conflict was about the old Roman border fortifications. Aldgisl kept the Franks at bay. In 678 he welcomed the English bishop Wilfrid, who like him was not a friend of the Franks.

Under his successor, Redbad (c680-719), the tide turned in favor of the Franks: in 690 the Franks were victorious in the Battle of Dorestad under the Austrasian mayor of the palace Pepin of Herstal. Though not all the consequences of this battle are clear, Dorestad became Frankish again, as did Utrecht and Fechten. It is thought that the influence of the Franks now extended from south of the Oude Rijn to the coast, but this is not entirely clear because the Frisians did not entirely lose control over the central river area. In any case there was a bishopric of the Frisians founded, and a marriage was held between Grimoald the Younger, the oldest son of Pepin, and Thiadsvind, daughter of Redbad in 711.

After Pepin died in 714, Redbad took advantage of the battle for succession in Frankish lands (see posting, Frankish Civil War). He concluded a treaty with the Frankish mayor of the palace Ragenfrid so that in 716 his armies entered Frankish territory as far as Cologne. All lands south of the Rhine became Frisian again. Redbad made plans to invade the Frankish empire again and mobilized a large army. But before he could do this he fell ill and died in the autumn of 719.

It is not certain who the successor of Redbad was. It is believed that there were troubles with the succession, because Charles Martel easily invaded Frisia and subjugated the territory. Resistance was so weak that Martel not only annexed Frisia Citerior (south of the Rhine), but he also crossed the Rhine and annexed “farther” Frisia, to the banks of the River Vlie.

In 733, Charles Martel sent an army against the Frisians. The Frisian army was pushed back to Eastergoa. The next year, Charles ferried an army across the Almere with a fleet that enabled him to sail up to move up the Boarn River to its mouth, where it flowed into the Bordine estuary (Middelsee). This estuary has since silted up and been claimed for agriculture during the 10th-14th centuries. The Frisians, commanded by King Poppo, used boats to land their army and surprise the Franks. However, the Franks rallied, the Frisians were defeated and Poppo killed. Charles Martel returned with much loot, and broke the power of the Frisian kings for good. The Franks annexed the Frisian lands between the Vlie and the Lauwers, and the Frisians became vassals of the Franks apart from the tribes living in East Frisia in present-day Germany.

Charlemagne brought an end to the independence of the eastern Frisians as well, expanding the Frankish Empire further to the east. In 772, he attacked the Frisians east of the Lauwers and their Saxon allies with a large army. He defeated them in several battles and so the last independent Frisian lands came into Frankish hands.

Under the leadership of Widukind the Saxons continued to resist the Franks. In 782 the Frisians east of the Lauwers also began an uprising against the Franks. This expanded to Frisian lands in the west that had been pacified earlier. This led to a widespread return to paganism by the population. Marauders burned churches and the priests had to flee south. In response Charlemagne organized a new campaign in 783 to restore control, first over the Saxons and later over the Frisians. The Frisians aided Widukind against the Franks in 784 by sending him an army. It did not help much and he had to surrender in 785 and the Frisian uprising was severely repressed by the Franks.

In 793 the Frisians rebelled for the last time against Charlemagne. The reason for this was the forceful recruiting of Frisians and Saxons for the war against the Avars in the east. Under the leadership of dukes Unno and Eilrad, an uprising began east of the Lauwers and spread to other Frisian lands. This led to a temporary return to paganism, and again priests had to flee. This uprising was also suppressed by the Franks

[Ennath]

January 20, 1918
Battle of Imbros

By January 1918, the outlook for the Ottomans was bleak. The new German commander of the Ottoman Black Sea Fleet, Hubert von Rebeur-Paschwitz, decided to try to relieve Allied naval pressure by making a sortie out of the Dardanelles. Several elements of the British Aegean Squadron had been basing in Kusu Bay off the island of Imbros, and they were a prime target. After raiding what shipping could be found at Imbros, Rebeur-Paschwitz would then turn to Mudros and attack the British naval base there.

The Allied force guarding the Dardanelles consisted of a few British and French heavy units as well as several monitors tasked with coastal bombardment. Escorting the monitors were several British destroyers. The pre-dreadnoughts Agamemnon and Lord Nelson were also tasked with guarding the area, but the Lord Nelson had been tasked with ferrying the squadron’s admiral to a conference at Salonika. Taking advantage of its absence, the Germans and Ottomans decided to dispatch the battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim (ex-Goeben) and light cruiser Midilli (ex-Breslau) to attack. The Allied forces at Imbros consisted of the monitors Raglan and M28 as well as the destroyers Tigress and Lizard. Agamemnon was nearby at Mudros, but she was much too slow to chase down the Ottoman ships if they wanted to avoid engaging her.

Without the battleships, the British were severely outgunned. The destroyers were armed with two 4-inch guns, two 12 pounders, and two 21-inch torpedo tubes. They were swift ships capable of making 27 knots. The monitors were better suited for coastal bombardment than naval combat, though their heavy guns gave them an element of firepower the destroyers lacked. Raglan, an Abercrombie-class monitor, was armed with two 14-inch guns, two 6-inch guns, and two 3-inch guns. M28 was a smaller vessel with a lighter armament sporting a single 9.2-inch gun, one 12 pounder, and a six pounder AA gun. Both were slow, with top speeds of 7 and 11 knots respectively, giving them little capability to escape a raid. In contrast, the Ottoman vessels were both fast and heavily armed. Midilli sported eight 5.9-inch guns, 120 mines, two torpedo tubes, and a top speed of 25 knots. Yavuz Sultan Selim was the most powerful ship in the Ottoman fleet with a top speed of 25.5 knots, ten 11-inch guns, twelve 5.9-inch guns, a dozen 3.45-inch guns, and four torpedo tubes. Thus, with no heavy units available to repel them, there was little in the means of effective Allied opposition when the Ottomans set out on their mission.

Setting out towards Imbros, Yavuz Sultan Selim struck a mine, but the damage was insignificant and the Ottoman vessels were able to continue. Yavuz then proceeded to bombard the signal station at Kephalo Point while Midilli was sent ahead to guard the entrance of Kusu Bay. As they approached Kusu Bay, they were sighted by Lizard at 5:30 AM. Lizard attempted to engage, but could not close to torpedo range due to heavy fire. Yavuz soon sighted the British monitors taking refuge in the bay, and broke off from Lizard to engage. Midilli continued to duel with Lizard and Tigress. The destroyers attempted to shield the monitors by laying a smoke screen, but this was ineffective. The monitors were both much too slow to evade and numerous hits were scored on Raglan, hitting her foretop and killing her gunnery direction officer. She attempted to return fire, but scored no hits before her main armament was knocked out when a shell pierced her casemate and ignited the ammunition within. Shortly after, she was hit in her magazine and sank. The battlecruiser now turned her attention to M28, striking her amidships and setting her alight before she was sunk when her magazine exploded at 6:00. With the monitors sunk, the Ottomans decided to break off the engagement and head south in an attempt to raid the naval base at Mudros.

Upon withdrawing from Kusu Bay, the Ottoman force accidentally sailed into a minefield and were shadowed by the British destroyers. In addition, several British and Greek aircraft were launched from Mudros. Greek ace Aristeidis Moraitinis, escorting two Sopwith Baby seaplanes, fought 10 enemy aircraft and shot down 3 seaplanes with his Sopwith Camel. With the approach of enemy aircraft, Midilli, which had been following Yavuz Sultan Selim, took the lead so as to take advantage of her AA armament. Midilli then struck a mine near her aft funnel, and shortly afterwards Yavuz hit one as well. Within half an hour Midilli had struck 4 more mines and began to sink. Yavuz attempted to rescue Midilli but also struck a mine and was forced to withdraw. Fleeing towards the safety of the Dardanelles, Yavuz was pursued by the destroyers. In order to cover Yavuz, 4 Ottoman destroyers and an old cruiser rushed out to engage the British destroyers. After the lead Ottoman destroyer began to take hits, the Ottoman squadron was forced to withdraw back up the Dardanelles. As the British destroyers approached Cape Helles, they were fired upon by Ottoman shore batteries and withdrew.

A dozen British seaplanes from Ark Royal were launched to finish off Yavuz Sultan Selim. Although they managed to score 2 hits, the Ottoman ship was by this time near the coast. Combined efforts from 10 Ottoman seaplanes as well as heavy AA fire were able to drive off the air attacks, downing one Sopwith Baby and damaging another. The 4 Ottoman destroyers guarded Yavuz as she sailed up the Dardnelles. Severely damaged, the battlecruiser ran aground on a sandbar off Nagara Point and became stranded. The next 6 days saw further air attacks against the Ottoman battlecruiser, with 6 hits being scored. Despite the raids, Yavuz Sultan Selîm suffered only superficial damage as the 65-pound bombs used by the British were too small to be effective. Allied commanders proposed plans for a submarine raid, but the only submarine attached to the Aegean squadron, E12, had mechanical problems and was inoperative.

Yavuz remained stranded on the sandbar until January 26 when the old battleship Turgut Reis finally arrived and towed her back into the Black Sea. In one last effort to destroy the battlecruiser, the British sent the submarine E14 into the Dardanelles on January 27. Yavuz had already left the area, so E14 started back to Allied waters. Sighting an Ottoman freighter, the British submarine attempted to torpedo her. The second torpedo exploded prematurely, damaging the submarine and forcing it to try to flee the straits. She came under heavy fire from nearby shore batteries and was eventually beached.

Although the British monitors were sunk as planned, the Ottoman losses offset these successes considerably. With Midilli sunk and Yavuz Sultan Selim severely damaged, the threat of the Ottoman Navy to the Allies was greatly reduced for the remainder of the war. Despite the removal of these 2 vessels from the Ottoman strength, the commanders of the British Aegean Squadron were criticized for sending their battleships so far from the Dardanelles. Had either Agamemnon or Lord Nelson had been nearby during the raid, Yavuz Sultan Selîm might have been destroyed.

[Ennath]

January 21, 1876
Fall of Andizhan

The Khanate of Khokand had been reduced to the status of a Russian vassal in 1867. Khudayar Khan remained on his throne, but only at Russian sufferance. The khanate’s last years were marked by sporadic revolts against the khan’s harsh but ineffectual government. The most serious occurred in 1873-74 and 1875-76, involving considerable fighting between rebel Kara-Kirghiz and Kipchaks and the khan’s regulars, the latter led with mixed fortunes during 1873-75 by Abdurrahman Hadji.

The rebellion that broke out in July 1875 was led initially by a Kara-Kirghiz pretender named Ishak Hasan Oghlu, who claimed to be Pulat Khan, long-lost grandson of Alim Khan (r. 1801-10) Abdurrahman Hadji and the forces sent to suppress the rebellion threw in their lot with him, and Khudayar fled to the Russians. They declined to provide him with any assistance, instead approving the installation of his son Nasr-ed-Din in his place. However, when the insurrection spilled over into Russian-held Khokandian territory, the Russians decided that enough was enough, and Gen. K.P. von Kaufmann invaded the khanate in August.

The main rebel force, some 30-50,000 men and at least 39 guns, under Abdurrahman, was defeated at Makhram on September 3, a battle in which the rebels lost just 90 men on the field, but a further 2000 in the close Russian pursuit. Russian losses are said to have been 5 dead and 9 wounded. When the city of Khokand opened its gates to the Russians later in the month, the rebels fled, and Nasr-ed-Din Khan was obliged to sign a treaty ceding all Khokandian lands on the right bank of the Syr-Darya to Russia, the khanate becoming henceforth a Russian protectorate.

Rebel forces, however, remained at large, and in October, they even achieved a military success by repelling Gen. V.N. Trotsky’s several attempted assaults on the walls of Andizhan, in which the Russians suffered an official loss of 80 men, said in reality to have been nearer 300-400. Another Russian reverse nearly occurred at Namangan soon after, when the small holding force left there was attacked in overwhelming strength. However, the garrison managed to hold out for 3 days until Gen. Mikhail Skobelev came to the rescue on November 7. On the 23rd, Skobelev defeated another large rebel concentration, this time of 21,000 men, near Balikchi, on the left bank of the Syr-Darya, and a third battle followed at Gurtepe on the 30th. Andizhan, however, held out until January 21, 1876, by which time Abdurrahman’s forces are recorded as comprising 10,000 horse and 20,000 infantry. At the end of the month, some 2 weeks of continual fighting in the countryside between Andizhan and Khokand culminated in a signal Russian victory at Assaki, following which Abdurrahman and the other principal Khokandian leaders submitted. Most were pardoned, but Pulat Khan was hanged.

The suppression of the rebellion marked the end of Khokand as an independent state. Nasr-ed-Din was removed to Russia as a prisoner, and what remained of the khanate was formally annexed on March 4, 1876, to become the Russian province of Ferghana. There were minor rebellions in the Ferghana Valley in 1885, 1891 and 1892, and at Andizhan as late as 1898, but all of these were half-hearted and crushed with methodical efficiency.