[Ennath]

February 10, 1258
Sack of Baghdad

Baghdad had for centuries been the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. By the middle of the 13th century, the power of the Abbasids had declined and Turkic and Mamluk warlords often held power over the Caliphs. Baghdad still retained much symbolic significance, however, and it remained a rich and cultured city. The Caliphs of the 12th and 13th centuries had begun to develop links with the expanding Mongol Empire in the east. Caliph an-Nasir li-dini'llah (r. 1180–1225) may have attempted an alliance with Genghis Khan when Muhammad II of Khwarezm threatened to attack the Abbasids.

According to The Secret History of the Mongols, Genghis and his successor, Ögedei Khan, ordered their general Chormaqan to attack Baghdad. In 1236, Chormaqan led a Mongol division to Irbil, which remained under Abbasid rule. Further raids on Irbil and other regions of the caliphate became nearly annual occurrences. Some raids were alleged to have reached Baghdad itself, but these Mongol incursions were not always successful, with Abbasid forces defeating the invaders in 1238 and 1245.

Despite their successes, the Abbasids hoped to come to terms with the Mongols and by 1241 had adopted the practice of sending an annual tribute. Envoys from the Caliph were present at the coronation of Güyük Khan as khagan in 1246 and that of Möngke Khan in 1251. During his brief reign, Güyük insisted that the Caliph Al-Musta'sim fully submit to Mongol rule and come personally to Karakorum. The Caliph refused.

In 1257, Möngke resolved to establish firm authority over the region. The khagan gave his brother, Hulagu, authority over a subordinate khanate and army, the Ilkhanate, and instructions to compel the submission of various Muslim states, including the caliphate. Though not seeking the overthrow of Al-Musta'sim, Möngke ordered Hulagu to destroy Baghdad if the Caliph refused his demands of personal submission and the payment of tribute in the form of a military detachment, which would reinforce Hulagu's army.

Hulagu raised a large expeditionary force, supplemented by Christian forces, including the King of Armenia and his army, a Frankish contingent from the Principality of Antioch, and a Georgian force, seeking revenge on the Abbasids for the sacking of their capital, Tiflis, decades earlier. About 1000 Chinese artillery experts accompanied the army, as did Persian and Turkic auxiliaries.

Hulagu led his army first to Iran, where he successfully campaigned against the Lurs and the remnants of the Khwarezm dynasty. After subduing them, Hulagu directed his attention toward the Ismaili Assassins, who had attempted the murder of both Möngke and Hulagu's friend and subordinate, Kitbuqa. Though Assassins failed in both attempts, Hulagu marched his army to their stronghold of Alamut, which he captured. The Mongols later executed the Assassins’ Grand Master, Imam Rukn al-Dun Khurshah.

Hulagu now sent word to Al-Musta'sim, demanding his acceptance of Möngke’s terms. Al-Musta'sim again refused, in large part due to the influence of his grand vizier, Ibn al-Alkami, who assured Al-Musta'sim that, if the capital of the caliphate was endangered, the Islamic world would rush to its aid.

Although he replied to Hulagu's demands in a manner that the Mongol commander found menacing and offensive enough to break off further negotiation, Al-Musta'sim neglected to summon armies to reinforce the troops at his disposal. Nor did he strengthen the walls. By January 11, the Mongols established themselves on both banks of the Tigris River so as to form a pincer around the city. Al-Musta'sim finally decided to do battle and sent out a force of 20,000 cavalry to attack; these were decisively defeated by the Mongols, whose sappers breached dikes along the Tigris River and flooded the ground behind the Abbasid forces, trapping them.

The Abbasid caliphate could supposedly call upon 50,000 soldiers, including the 20,000 cavalry under al-Musta'sim. However, these hastily assembled troops were poorly equipped and poorly disciplined. Although the caliph technically had the authority to summon soldiers from other Muslim empires, he either neglected to do so or lacked the ability. His taunting opposition had lost him the loyalty of the Mamluks, and the Syrian emirs, who he supported, were busy preparing their own defenses.

On January 29, the Mongol army began its siege of Baghdad, constructing a palisade and a ditch around the city. Employing siege engines and catapults, the Mongols attempted to breach the city's walls, and, by February 5, had seized a significant portion of the defenses. Realizing that his forces had little chance of retaking the walls, Al-Musta'sim attempted to open negotiations with Hulagu, who rebuffed the Caliph. Around 3000 of Baghdad's notables also tried to negotiate, but were executed. Five days later, on February 10, the city surrendered; the Mongols entered the city until the 13th, beginning a week of massacre and destruction.

Citizens attempting to flee were killed. Up to 90,000 may have died. (Arab sources claim over 200,000). Mosques, palaces, hospitals and libraries were looted. The famed Grand Library was destroyed. The caliph was captured and forced to watch all this before being executed himself. Baghdad was a depopulated, ruined city for several centuries and only gradually recovered some of its former glory.